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[[Nguyen Ngoc Bich]]

[[User:Loc_Vu-Quoc/Draft:Nguyen_Ngoc_Bich]]

By [[User:Loc Vu-Quoc|Loc Vu-Quoc]] ([[User talk:Loc Vu-Quoc|talk]]) 17:30, 14 October 2024 (CDT)  ◉ 
Started at [https://citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Nguyen_Ngoc_Bich&oldid=893049 08:10, 10 June 2023]
== Introduction ==
[[File:Nguyen Ngoc Bich 1962.png|thumb|150px|left|Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Bich, 1962]]
{{Infobox Person
| name         = Nguyễn Ngọc Bích
| image        = <!-- Nguyen Ngoc Bich 1962.png --><!--Nguyen Ngoc Bich Minh Tan Logo.png--><!--File:Nguyen Ngoc Bich 1933 X.png-->[[File:Nguyen Ngoc Bich 1931 Ecole Polytechnique 2.png]]
| image_size   =
| caption      = As a student at [[École polytechnique]], 1931
| birth_date   = 18 May 1911
| birth_place  = [[Wikipedia:Ben Tre|Bến Tre]], [[Wikipedia:Vietnam|Vietnam]]
| death_date   = 4 Dec 1966
| death_place  = [[Wikipedia:Thu Duc|Thủ Đức]], [[Wikipedia:Vietnam|Vietnam]]
| nationality  = Vietnamese
| citizenship  = [[South Vietnam]]
| alma_mater   = * [[École polytechnique]] 
* [[École des ponts ParisTech|École nationale des ponts et chaussées]]
| occupation   = *Engineer 
* Resistance fighter 
* Medical doctor 
* Politician
| years_active = 1935 - 1966
| known_for    = Resistance war, politics
| title        = Doctor (medical)
| signature    = Firefox 2023-03-17 08-51-44.png
}}
{{TOC|right}}
[[File:Nguyen Ngoc Bich 1931 Ecole Polytechnique 2.png|thumb|left|150px|Nguyen Ngoc Bich 1931, student at [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_polytechnique École polytechnique].]]
[[File:Nguyen_Ngoc_Bich_1933_X.png|150px|thumb|left|Nguyen Ngoc Bich, circa 1933, student at [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_polytechnique École polytechnique].]]
'''Nguyễn Ngọc Bích''' (1911–1966) was a French-educated engineer, a 
Vietnamese "resistance hero" against the French colonists<ref name=Buttinger.1967b /><sup>:850. </sup> <sup>[[#Note links|NOTE]]</sup><span id="Note links jump"></span> <sup>[[#Primary sources, quotations|N.psq1]]</sup><span id="Primary sources, quotations jump1"></span> 
and "one of the most popular local heroes,"<ref name=Cooper.1970/><sup>:122</sup>
a French-educated medical doctor, an intellectual and politician, who proposed an alternative viewpoint to avoid the high-casualty, high-cost war between [[Wikipedia:North Vietnam|North Vietnam]] and [[Wikipedia:South_Vietnam|South Vietnam]].<ref name=Nguyen-Ngoc-Bich />

The [[commons:File:Nguyen Ngoc Bich Street.png|Nguyen-Ngoc-Bich street]] in the city of <!--[[Cần Thơ]][https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cần_Thơ Cần Thơ]-->[[Wikipedia:Cần Thơ|Cần Thơ]], [[Wikipedia:Vietnam|Vietnam]], was named after him to honor and commemorate his feats (of sabotaging bridges to slow down the colonial French-army advances) and heroism (being on the French most-wanted list,<ref name=Cooper.1970 /><sup>:122</sup> imprisoned, subjected to an "intensive and unpleasant interrogation"<ref name=Cooper.1970 /><sup>:122</sup> that left a mark on his forehead,<sup>[[#bich-injury|N.bi1]]</sup><span id="bich-injury jump1"></span> and exiled) during the <!--[[Indochinese revolution|First Indochina War]][https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Indochina_War First Indochina War]-->[[Wikipedia:First Indochina War|First Indochina War]].

Upon graduating from the <!--[[École_polytechnique|École polytechnique]][https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_polytechnique École polytechnique]--> [[Wikipedia:École_polytechnique|École polytechnique]] (engineering military school under the French Ministry of Armed Forces) and then from the <!--[[École des ponts ParisTech|École nationale des ponts et chaussées]][https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/École_des_ponts_ParisTech École nationale des ponts et chaussées]-->[[Wikipedia:École des ponts ParisTech|École nationale des ponts et chaussées]] (civil engineering) in France in 1935,<!--{{sfn|Nguyen-Ngoc-Chau|2018}}--><ref name=NNC.2018/> Dr. Bich returned to Vietnam to work for the French colonial government. After World War II, in 1945, he joined the <!--[[Viet-Minh]][https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viet-Minh Viet-Minh]-->[[Wikipedia:Viet-Minh|Viet-Minh]],<sup>[[#Bich Viet Minh |N.bvm]]</sup><span id="Bich Viet Minh jump"></span> and became a senior commander in the Vietnamese resistance movement, and insisted on fighting for Vietnam's independence, not for communism.

Suspecting<sup>[[#NNBich-betrayed|N.bs]]<span id="NNBich-betrayed jump"></span></sup>
of being betrayed by the Communist faction<sup>[[#NNBich-betrayed|N.bs]]</sup><span id="NNBich-betrayed jump"></span> of the [[Wikipedia:Viet-Minh|Viet-Minh]] and apprehended by the French forces, he was saved from execution by a campaign for amnesty by his [[Wikipedia:École_polytechnique|École polytechnique]] classmates based in Vietnam, mostly high-level officers of the French army,<!--{{sfn|Tran-Thi-Lien|2002|p=299}}--><ref name=Tran-Thi-Lien /><sup>: 299</sup> and was subsequently exiled to France, where he founded with friends and managed the Vietnamese publishing house Minh Tan (in Paris), which published many important works for the Vietnamese literature.<sup>[[#Minh Tan|N.mbl]]</sup><span id="Minh Tan jump"></span> In parallel, he studied medicine and became a medical doctor. He was highly regarded in Vietnamese politics, and was suggested by the French in 1954 as an alternative to [[Wikipedia:Ngo Dinh Diem|Ngo Dinh Diem]] as the sixth <!--[[Leaders_of_South_Vietnam#Prime_Ministers|prime minister]][https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaders_of_South_Vietnam#Prime_Ministers prime minister]-->[[Wikipedia:Leaders_of_South_Vietnam#Prime_Ministers|prime minister]] of the [[Wikipedia:State of Vietnam|State of Vietnam]] under the former Emperor [[Wikipedia:Bao Dai|Bao Dai]] as Head of State,<!--{{efn|See Section [[#Intellectual and politician|Intellectual and politician]] and Langguth (2000).{{sfn|Langguth|2000|p=84}}}}--><ref name=Langguth.2000 /><sup>:84</sup> who selected [[Wikipedia:Ngo Dinh Diem|Ngo Dinh Diem]] as prime minister. While Bich's candidature for the 1961 presidential election in opposition to Diem was, however, declared invalid by the Saigon authorities at the last moment for "technical reasons",<!--{{sfn|Honey, P.J.|1962}}{{sfn|Nguyen-Ngoc-Chau|2018}}--><ref name=Honey.1962 /><ref name=NNC.2018 />, he was "regarded by many as a possible successor to President [[Wikipedia:Ngo Dinh Diem|Ngo Dinh Diem]]".<ref name=Honey.1962 /> <sup>[[#Political influence|N.pi]]<span id="Political influence jump"></span>, [[#China Quarterly|N.tcq]]</sup><span id="China Quarterly jump"></span>

A large majority of the information in this article came from the master document
''Nguyen Ngoc Bich (1911–1966): A Biography,''<!--{{sfn|Nguyen-Ngoc-Chau|Vu-Quoc-Loc|2023}}--><ref name=NNC.VQL.2023/> which contains even more information, including primary-source evidence and photos, than presented here.  Most images in the present article were uploaded for the first time at the time of the writing by the original writer.<sup>[[#Original writer |N.vql]]</sup><span id="Original writer jump"></span>

Important historical events that affected Bich's adult life, together with those mentioned in his 1962 paper (e.g., failed agrarian reform, napalm bombs, famine, conquest for rice, etc.) are summarized, in particular the atmosphere in which Bich had lived for ten years working for the French colonialists (from 1935 to 1945), and the historical conditions that drove this French-educated engineer to become a
"Francophile anticolonialist"<sup>[[#Francophile anticolonialists|N.fa1]]<span id="Francophile anticolonialists jump1"></span>, [[#Primary sources, quotations|N.psq2]]</sup><span id="Primary sources, quotations jump2"></span> and to join the [[Wikipedia:Viet-Minh|Viet-Minh]] in 1945<sup>[[#Bich Viet Minh |N.bvm]]</sup><span id="Bich Viet Minh jump"></span> (e.g., the French brutal repressions in 1940 and 1945, the power vacuum after the Japanese ''coup de force'' in 1945, [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho Chi Minh]]'s call for a general uprising from [[Wikipedia:vi:Chiến_khu_Tân_Trào|Tân Trào]], the 1945 [[Wikipedia:August Revolution|August Revolution]], the Black Sunday on 1945 Sep 2 in Saigon, etc.).  The key principle is to summarize a historical event only when it was directly related to Bich's activities.
Care is exercised in selecting references and quotations that complement, but not duplicate, other Wikipedia articles at the time of this writing.
For example, the history and the general use of [[Wikipedia:napalm|napalm]] bombs, which Bich mentioned in his 1962 article, are not summarized.
Regarding the French using American-made [[Wikipedia:napalm|napalm]] bombs in the [[Wikipedia:First Indochina War|First Indochina War]], 
well-known battles<sup>[[#Napalm battles|N.nb]]</sup><span id="Napalm battles jump"></span> are also not summarized.

== First Indochina War ==
The broader historic events of [[Wikipedia:World War II|World War II]] and the [[Wikipedia:First Indochina War|First Indochina War]]---specifically, the short interwar period between end of the former and the beginning of the later—led to the context in which [[Nguyen Ngoc Bich|Nguyen Ngoc Bich]] fought the French colonists until he was captured. 
The activities directly or indirectly affected Bich's life by four historic individuals are summarized.
French General [[Wikipedia:de Gaulle|de Gaulle]], by his desire to reconquer Indochina as a French colony, was a main force that led to the First Indochina War, in which [[Nguyen Ngoc Bich|Bich]] fought.
Ho Chi Minh, founder and leader of the [[Wikipedia:Viet-Minh|Viet-Minh]], called for the general uprising---against the French colonists and the Japanese occupiers---to which [[Nguyen Ngoc Bich|Bich]] responded.  US President [[Wikipedia:FDR|Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] ardent anticolonialism could have prevented the two Indochina wars, and changed the course of history.  US President [[Wikipedia:Harry Truman|Harry Truman]] was a reason that the [[Wikipedia:First Indochina War|First Indochina War]] is now called the "French-American" War in Vietnamese literature,<ref name="Lady.Borton.2020"/> and through his support for the French war effort supplied napalm bombs, which [[Nguyen Ngoc Bich|Bich]] mentioned in his 1962 paper.  The US funded more than 30% of the war cost in 1952 under US President [[Wikipedia:Eisenhower|Eisenhouer]], and "nearly 80%" in 1954 under [[Wikipedia:Harry Truman|Truman]].<!--<sup>[[#French-war cost|Note]]</sup>--><sup>[[#French-war cost|N.fwc]]</sup><span id="French-war cost jump"></span>

=== Charles de Gaulle ===
[[File:De-gaulle-radio.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Charles de Gaulle speaking on the BBC, 1941]]
<!--
[[File:De Gaulle-OWI (cropped).jpg|thumb|120px|left|[[Wikipedia:de Gaulle|de Gaulle]] in 1942]]
-->
[[File:De Gaulle French Union 1944.png|thumb|150px|right|[[Wikipedia:de Gaulle|De Gaulle]]'s ambition to restore French rule over Indochina, 1944]]
De Gaulle was a prime mover leading to the First Indochina War in which the French-educated [[Nguyen Ngoc Bich|Bich]] fought on the [[Wikipedia:Viet-Minh|Viet-Minh]] side against the French colonialists.

At the beginning of [[Wikipedia:World War II|World War II]], in his historic four-minute call-to-arms broadcast from London on 1940 June 18, later known as ''L'Appel du 18 Juin'' in French history, the mostly then unknown<sup>[[#de Gaulle|N.cdg1]]</sup><span id="de Gaulle jump1"></span> General [[Wikipedia:de Gaulle|de Gaulle]] counted on the French Empire, with Indochina as the "Pearl of the Empire", rich in rubber, tin, coal, and rice,<ref name=Logevall.2012/><sup>:28</sup> to provide resources to fight the Axis, with the support of the British Empire and the powerful industry of the United States. 
Understanding that Indochina was under the menace of occupation by the Japanese, [[Wikipedia:de Gaulle|de Gaulle]] harbored the dream of wresting this colony back into the fold of the French Empire, writing in his memoirs "As I saw her move away into the mist, I swore to myself that I would one day bring her back."<ref name=Logevall.2012/><sup>:25</sup> <sup>[[#de Gaulle dream |N.dgd]]</sup><span id="de Gaulle dream jump"></span> 

<!--Since 1945 March, the month the Japanese toppled the French colonial government in Indochina, de Gaulle had been playing the cold-war card to threaten the Americans that France would fall into the sphere of influence of the USSR if the US did not support France to retake Indochina:<ref name=Marr.1995/><sup>:[https://archive.org/details/vietnam1945quest0000marr/page/242/mode/2up?view=theater&q=%22On+the+13th%2C+General+Charles+de+Gaulle%22 243]</sup> 
<span style="background-color:yellow">HERE 24.10.8</span>-->
On 1945 Mar 13, four days after the Japanese ''coup de force'' in Indochina (Mar 9), de Gaulle summoned US ambassador to France Jefferson Caffery<ref name=Caffery.1945/> to complain that the French army fighting in Indochina requested help from the US military authorities in China---headed by US General Wedemeyer<ref name=Patti.1981/> <ref name=Tonnesson.2007/><sup>:66</sup> who followed closely the instructions of US President Roosevelt<ref name=Tonnesson.2007/><sup>:67</sup>---but was told that "under instructions no aid could be sent."<ref name=Caffery.1945/>  De Gaulle then played the Cold-War card, telling Caffery that France would fall into the sphere of influence of the USSR if the US did not support France to retake Indochina:<ref name=Marr.1995/><sup>:[https://archive.org/details/vietnam1945quest0000marr/page/242/mode/2up?view=theater&q=%22On+the+13th%2C+General+Charles+de+Gaulle%22 243]</sup>
<blockquote> 
{| cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0
|-
! width="100%" | De Gaulle to Caffery, 1945 March
|-
| style="padding: 0 1.5em; text-align: justify;" | <span style="font-size:150%; color:blue">❝</span> Do you [the US] want us [France] to become... one of the federated states under the Russian aegis? The Russians are advancing apace. . . When Germany falls they will be upon us. If the public here comes to realize that you are against us in Indochina there will be terrific disappointment and nobody knows to what that will lead. We do not want to become Communist; we do not want to fall into the Russian orbit; but I hope that you do not push us into it. <span style="font-size:150%; color:blue">❞</span>
|-
| style="padding: 0 1.5em; text-align: right;" | --- De Gaulle to Jefferson Caffery, US Ambassador to France, 1945 March<ref name=Lawrence.2007/><sup>:289</sup>
|}
</blockquote>

[[File:1945 Aug 12 de Gaulle Truman White House.jpg|thumb|250px|right|US President [[Wikipedia:Harry Truman|Harry Truman]] and French General [[Wikipedia:de Gaulle|de Gaulle]], White House, 1945 Aug 12.]]
"Within two weeks" of the death of US President [[Wikipedia:FDR|Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] on 1945 Apr 12, de Gaulle pressured [[Wikipedia:Harry Truman|Harry Truman]] on the Indochina issue, and his government launched "an intensive propaganda effort to mold world opinion in favor of the status quo (French control) in Indochina",<ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:116</sup> and this after having approved the Japanese occupation of Indochina since 1940 September 22.<ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:452</sup> By the time General [[Wikipedia:de Gaulle|de Gaulle]]<sup>[[#de Gaulle|N.cdg2]]</sup><span id="de Gaulle jump2"></span> came to the US in 1945 Aug (inset photo) <!--, after US President [[FDR|Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] had died on 1945 Apr 12,--> to campaign for US military aid from then US President [[Wikipedia:Harry Truman|Harry Truman]], the "French had been forced to drown several Vietnamese uprisings in blood. They had seen the colonial economy completely disrupted. They had been humiliated by the Germans in Europe and incarcerated by the Japanese in Indochina. Even to begin to reassert sovereignty in Indochina, the French were forced to go hat in hand to the Americans (see inset photo, [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1945_Aug_12_de_Gaulle_Truman_White_House.jpg de Gaulle visited Truman]), British, and Chinese."<ref name=Marr.1984/><sup>:[https://archive.org/details/vietnamesetradit0000marr/page/412/mode/2up?q=%22and+incarcerated+by+the+Japanese+in+Indochina%22&view=theater 413]</sup>

To restore French rule over Indochina, on 1945 Jun 7, as Chairman of the French Provisional Government (formed in 1944 Aug after the liberation of Paris), General de Gaulle appointed General Leclerc to establish and to command the French Expeditionary Corps.<ref name=Tonnesson.1991/><sup>:321-2</sup> <sup>[[#Leclerc accepted assignment|N.laa]]</sup><span id="Leclerc accepted assignment jump"></span>  Even though Eisenhower headquarters recommended against Leclerc’s appointment in favor of General Carpentier,<ref name=Vigneras.1957/><sup>:397</sup> they did not follow up with this objection since the focus was on defeating Japan, but did inform the French that it would take several months to equip the French divisions.<ref name=Tonnesson.1991/><sup>:322</sup>  De Gaulle also appointed Admiral Thierry d’Argenlieu as High Commissioner of Indochina, the "French [[Wikipedia:Rasputin|Rasputin]]"<ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:382</sup> <sup>[[#d'Argenlieu recall |N.dar]]</sup><span id="d'Argenlieu recall jump"></span>  who later played a key role in sowing the seeds of the First Indochina War.

[[File:Baodai2.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Emperor [[Wikipedia:Bao Dai|Bao Dai]]]]  
On 1945 Aug 20, just ten days before he abdicated on 1945 Aug 30,<sup>[[#Bao Dai abdication|N.bda]]</sup><span id="Bao Dai abdication jump"></span><!--{{efn|Under the pressure of the [[Viet Minh]],{{sfn|Patti|1980|pp=186-187}} [[Bao Dai]] had decided to abdicate on 1945 Aug 24,{{sfn|Patti|1980|pp=186-187}} and abdicated officially on 1945 Aug 30.{{sfn|Patti|1980|p=220}} [[Ho Chi Minh]] then appointed "Mr. Nguyen Vinh Thuy"  ([[Bao Dai]]'s birth name) as "Supreme Counsellor"{{sfn|Patti|1980|p=220}} of the Provisional Government of Vietnam.{{sfn|Patti|1980|p=220}}}}--> Vietnam Emperor [[Wikipedia:Bao Dai|Bao Dai]] sent a moving plea to de Gaulle:<sup>[[#Bao Dai quote|N.bdq]]</sup><span id="Bao Dai quote jump"></span><!--{{efn|In the foreword by Devillers for Tønnesson's 2010 book ''Vietnam 1946''.{{sfn|Tønnesson|2010|pp=xiii-xiv}} }}-->

<!--
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{{Quote frame |quote=<span style="font-size:110%">{{resize|120%|{{font color|blue|❝}}}} I beg you to understand that the only means of safeguarding French interests and the spiritual inﬂuence of France in Indochina is to recognize the independence of Vietnam unreservedly and to renounce any idea of reestablishing French sovereignty or rule here in any form. . . . Even if you were to reestablish the French administration here, it would not be obeyed, and each village would be a nest of resistance. . . . We would be able to understand each other so easily and become friends if you would stop hoping to become our masters again.{{resize|120%|{{font color|blue|❞}}}}</span> |author=<span style="font-size:103%">[[Bao Dai]] |source=message to [[de Gaulle]] on 1945 Aug 20{{sfn|Tønnesson|2010|pp=xiii-xiv}}</span>}}
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<!--See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typographic_alignment -->
<blockquote> 
{| cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0
|-
! width="100%" | Bao Dai to de Gaulle, 1945 Aug 20
|-
| style="padding: 0 1.5em; text-align: justify;" | <span style="font-size:150%; color:blue">❝</span> I beg you to understand that the only means of safeguarding French interests and the spiritual inﬂuence of France in Indochina is to recognize the independence of Vietnam unreservedly and to renounce any idea of reestablishing French sovereignty or rule here in any form. . . . Even if you were to reestablish the French administration here, it would not be obeyed, and each village would be a nest of resistance. . . . We would be able to understand each other so easily and become friends if you would stop hoping to become our masters again. <span style="font-size:150%; color:blue">❞</span>
|-
| style="padding: 0 1.5em; text-align: right;" | --- [[Wikipedia:Bao Dai|Bao Dai]], message to [[Wikipedia:de Gaulle|de Gaulle]] on 1945 Aug 20<ref name=Tonnesson.2010/><sup>:xiii–xiv</sup>
|}
</blockquote>

[[File:1945 May Patti in Kunmiing.png|150px|thumb|right|[[Wikipedia:Office_of_Strategic_Services|OSS]] Maj. [[Wikipedia:Archimedes Patti|Archimedes Patti]] in [[Wikipedia:Kunming|Kunming]], 1945 May.]]
Just a few days later on 1945 Aug 26 (or very shortly thereafter), [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho Chi Minh]] put the resistance in much stronger terms to US [[Wikipedia:Office_of_Strategic_Services|OSS]] Major [[Wikipedia:Archimedes Patti|Archimedes Patti]], who still remembered vividly after some 35 years:<sup>[[#HCM quote1|N.hcm1]]</sup><span id="HCM quote1 jump"></span><!--{{efn|From 1945 Aug 26 to 1980, when Patti published his book.{{sfn|Patti|1980|p=4}} }}-->
[[File:Paul_Mus_(1902-1969),_expert_historian_on_Indochina,_Buddhism.jpg|thumb|left|[[Wikipedia:Paul Mus|Paul Mus]] (1902-1969)]]

<!--
{{Quote frame |quote=<span style="font-size:110%">{{resize|120%|{{font color|blue|❝}}}} If the French intended to return to Viet Nam as imperialists to exploit, to maim and kill my people, [I] could assure them and the world that Viet Nam from north to south would be reduced to ashes, even if it meant the life of every man, woman, and child, and that [my] government's policy would be one of scorched earth to the end.  {{resize|120%|{{font color|blue|❞}}}}</span> |author=<span style="font-size:103%">[[Ho Chi Minh]] to [[Archimedes Patti]]  |source=''Why Viet Nam?'' 1980, p.4.{{sfn|Patti|1980|p=4}}</span>}}
-->
<blockquote> 
{| cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0
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! width="100%" | Ho Chi Minh to Archimedes Patti, 1945 Aug 26
|-
| style="padding: 0 1.5em; text-align: justify;" | <span style="font-size:150%; color:blue">❝</span> If the French intended to return to Viet Nam as imperialists to exploit, to maim and kill my people, [I] could assure them and the world that Viet Nam from north to south would be reduced to ashes, even if it meant the life of every man, woman, and child, and that [my] government's policy would be one of scorched earth to the end. <span style="font-size:150%; color:blue">❞</span>
|-
| style="padding: 0 1.5em; text-align: right;" | --- [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho Chi Minh]] to OSS Maj. [[Wikipedia:Archimedes Patti|Archimedes Patti]]<ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:4</sup>
|}
</blockquote>

The Southeast Asia and Buddhism expert [[Wikipedia:Paul Mus|Paul Mus]], who first met [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho Chi Minh]] in 1945, recounted that [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho Chi Minh]] said<ref name="NYT Paul Mus obituary"/><!--{{sfn|NYT Paul Mus obituary}}--> then:<sup>[[#Year of the Pig|N.ytp1]]</sup><span id="Year of the Pig jump1"></span><!--{{efn |name=Paul Mus interview|In his interview in the 1968 documentary ''[[In the Year of the Pig]],'' at the {{plain link|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0pibqRPi8Bo&t=13m56s|name=Youtube video time 13:56}}, Paul Mus recounted: "[[Ho Chi Minh]] said {{bracket|in 1945}}, 'I have no army.' That's not true now {{bracket|in 1968}}.  'I have no army.'  1945.  'I have no finance.  I have no diplomacy.  I have no public instruction.  I have just hatred and I will not disarm it until you give me confidence in you.'  Now this is the thing on which I would insist because it's still alive in his memory, as in mine. For every time [[Ho Chi Minh]] has trusted us, we betrayed him."}}-->

<!--
{{Quote frame |quote=<span style="font-size:110%">{{resize|120%|{{font color|blue|❝}}}} I have no army, no diplomacy, no finances, no industry, no public works. All I have is hatred, and I will not disarm it until I feel I can trust you [the French].{{resize|120%|{{font color|blue|❞}}}}</span> |author=<span style="font-size:103%">[[Ho Chi Minh]] |source=according to [[Paul Mus]], the ''New York Times'' 1969 obituary{{sfn|NYT Paul Mus obituary}}</span>}}
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<blockquote> 
{| cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0
|-
! width="100%" | Ho Chi Minh to Paul Mus, 1945
|-
| style="padding: 0 1.5em; text-align: justify;" | <span style="font-size:150%; color:blue">❝</span> I have no army, no diplomacy, no finances, no industry, no public works. All I have is hatred, and I will not disarm it until I feel I can trust you [the French]. <span style="font-size:150%; color:blue">❞</span>
|-
| style="padding: 0 1.5em; text-align: right;" | --- [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho Chi Minh]], according to [[Wikipedia:Paul Mus|Paul Mus]], the ''New York Times'' 1969 obituary<ref name="NYT Paul Mus obituary"/>
|}
</blockquote>

[[Wikipedia:Paul Mus|Paul Mus]] added "For every time [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho Chi Minh]] has trusted us, we betrayed him."<sup>[[#Year of the Pig|N.ytp2]]</sup><span id="Year of the Pig jump2"></span><!--{{efn|name=Paul Mus interview}}-->

War broke out on 1945 Sep 23,<ref name=Logevall.2012/><sup>:115</sup> with [[Nguyen Ngoc Bich|Bich]] joining the Viet Minh, an organization founded by Ho Chi Minh, to fight the French.

=== Ho Chi Minh ===
[[File:Ho Chi Minh Declaration of Independence 1945 Sep 2.pdf|150px|thumb|left|[[Ho Chi Minh]] declaring Vietnam independence 1945 Sep 2.]]
<!--
[[File:Ho Chi Minh 1946 and signature.jpg|150px|thumb|left|Ho Chi Minh in 1946, with dedication to his god-daughter and signature]]
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[[File:Ho Chi Minh, Giap, farewell to OSS team 1945.png|200px|thumb|right|[[Ho Chi Minh]] and [[Vo Nguyen Giap]] giving a farewell party to the US Army intelligence Deer Team<!--{{efn|name=OSS-HCM}}--> ([[Wikipedia:Office of Strategic Services|OSS]]),<sup>[[#HCM and OSS |N.hos]]</sup><span id="HCM and OSS jump"></span> 1945.]]
For thirty years, from 1912 when [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho Chi Minh]] first visited Boston and New York City until about 1948-1949, Ho held out his hope that the US would provide military support for his anticolonialist resistance against the French.<ref name="Logevall.2012"/><sup>:xxii</sup><!--{{sfn|Logevall|2012|p=xxii}}--> 
Since that visit to the US in his early twenties, [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho]]---like Bich, a Francophile anticolonialist,<sup>[[#Francophile anticolonialists|N.fa2]]</sup><span id="Francophile anticolonialists jump2"></span> <sup>[[#Primary sources, quotations|N.psq3]]</sup><span id="Primary sources, quotations jump3"></span><!--{{efn|name=quotations-VQL}}--> who was both a communist and a nationalist<sup>[[#Ho communist nationalist|N.hcn]]</sup><span id="Ho communist nationalist jump"></span> <!--{{efn|"For many decades there would be a heated debate among diplomats, politicians and political scientists in every corner of the world as to whether [[Ho Chi Minh]] was a communist or a nationalist. The answer is that he was both."{{sfn|Tønnesson|1991|p=120}} }}--> ---developed a "lifelong admiration for Americans".<ref name=Langguth.2000/><sup>:55</sup><!--{{sfn|Langguth|2000|p=55}}--> <sup>[[#Ho admires Americans|N.haa]]</sup><span id="Ho admires Americans jump"></span><!--{{efn|As cited in Logevall (2012),{{sfn|Logevall|2012|p=721}} Note 22, p. 721.}}-->

Seizing on the opportunity of the Japanese entering Tonkin in 1940 September<ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:452</sup><!--{{sfn|Patti|1980|p=452}}--> to begin occupy Indochina (with French agreement)<ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:452</sup><!--{{sfn|Patti|1980|p=452}}--> to rid Vietnam of French colonial yoke,<sup>[[#Ho insight revolution |N.hir]]</sup><span id="Ho insight revolution jump"></span><!--{{efn|Ho was convinced that with the Japanese occupation of Indochina and "with international events moving fast and Decoux's government isolated from metropolitan France, the potential for revolution in Vietnam was much enhanced."{{sfn|Logevall|2012|p=34}} }}--> [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho]] (who was in [[Wikipedia:Liuzhou|Liuzhou]], China) returned to the China-Vietnam border and began a "training program for cadres".<ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:452</sup><!--{{sfn|Patti|1980|p=452}}-->  Then on 1941 February 8,<ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:524</sup><!--{{sfn|Patti|1980|p=524}}--> Ho crossed the border to enter Vietnam for the first time after 30 years away (from 1911 to 1941), and sheltered in cave Cốc Bó<ref name=Brocheux.2007/><sup>:73</sup><!--{{sfn|Brocheux|2007|p=73}}--> near the [[Wikipedia:vi:Pác_Bó|Pác Bó]] hamlet, in the Cao Bằng province, less than a mile from the Chinese border.<ref name="Logevall.2012"/><sup>:34</sup><!--{{sfn|Logevall|2012|p=34}}--> <sup>[[#Devillers incorrect info |N.dii]]</sup><span id="Devillers incorrect info jump"></span><!--{{efn|Devillers (1952) received incorrect information that Ho was in "Tsin Tsi" (Jingxi, Guangxi, China) as he wrote:{{sfn|Devillers|1952|p=97}} "En mai 1941, il réussit à convoquer à Tsin Tsi dans le Kwang Si, à 100 km environ au Nord de Cao Bang, un 'Congrès' (In May 1941, he succeeded in calling for a plenum at Jingxi in the Guangxi province, about 100 km north of the Cao Bang province)." }}-->  There [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho]] convened a plenum in 1941 May, and founded the [[Wikipedia:Viet-Minh|Viet-Minh]], an anticolonialist organization that Bich joined in 1945.<sup>[[#Bich Viet Minh |N.bvm]]</sup><span id="Bich Viet Minh jump"></span>

On 1941 Sep 8, two months after the total integration of Indochina into the Japanese military system, [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho]] (still known as Nguyen Ai Quoc at that time) in his call to arm to the people of Tonkin, announced the formation of the [[Wikipedia:Viet-Minh|Viet-Minh]] to "fight the French and Japanese fascism until the total liberation of Vietnam."<ref name=Devillers.1952/><sup>:97</sup>  
On 1941 Oct 25, the [[Wikipedia:Viet-Minh|Viet-Minh]] published its first manifesto: <!--"Unification of all social strata, of all revolutionary organizations, of all ethnic minorities. Alliance with all other oppressed peoples of Indochina. Collaboration with all French anti-fascist groups. One goal: the destruction of colonialism and imperialist fascism."<sup>[[#Viet Minh manifesto |N.vmm]]</sup><span id="Viet Minh manifesto jump"></span>-->  <!--{{efn|"Union de toutes les couches sociales, de toutes les organisations révolutionnaires, de toutes les minorités ethniques. Alliance avec tous les autres peuples opprimés de l'Indochine. Collaboration avec tous les élements antifascistes français. Un but: la destruction du colonialisme et de l'impérialisme fascistes."{{sfn|Devillers|1952|p=97}}}}-->

{| cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0
|-
! width="100%" | Viet Minh first manifesto, 1941 Oct 25
|-
| style="padding: 0 1.5em; text-align: justify;" | <span style="font-size:150%; color:blue">❝</span> Unification of all social strata, of all revolutionary organizations, of all ethnic minorities. Alliance with all other oppressed peoples of Indochina. Collaboration with all French anti-fascist groups. One goal: the destruction of colonialism and imperialist fascism. <span style="font-size:150%; color:blue">❞</span>  <sup>[[#Viet Minh manifesto |N.vmm]]</sup><span id="Viet Minh manifesto jump"></span>
|-
| style="padding: 0 1.5em; text-align: right;" | 
|}

[[File:General Chang Fa-Kwei (2nd from right) 1945.06.07.png|thumb|200px|left|<!--{{lang-de|[[:de:Zhang_Fakui|Gen. Chang Fa-kwei]]}}-->[[Wikipedia:de:Zhang_Fakui|Gen. Chang Fa-kwei]] (2nd from right), US Kwangsi Command Headquarters, 1945 Jun 7]]
<!--[[File:Zhang Fakui.jpg|120px|thumb|right|[https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Fakui Gen. Zhang Fakui (in German)] {{lang-de|[[:de:Zhang_Fakui|Gen. Chang Fa-kwei]]}} in 1946.]]-->
In 1942 August, [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho]] (named "Nguyen Ai Quoc" at that time) crossed the border into China with the intention of attracting the interest of the Allies in Chungking<ref name="Patti.1980"/><sup>:7</sup><!--{{sfn|Patti|1980|p=7}}--> (now [[Wikipedia:Chongqing|Chongqing]]) for the Vietnamese resistance movement,  arrested by the Chinese on 1942 August 28 for being "French spy",<ref name="Patti.1980"/><sup>:525</sup><!--{{sfn|Patti|1980|p=525}}--> but the real reason was [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho]]'s political activities, viewed as "Communistic", instead of "nationalistic", by the Chinese ([[Wikipedia:Chiang Kai-shek|Chiang Kai-shek]]) and the Allies at Chungking (now [[Wikipedia:Chongqing|Chongqing]]).<ref name="Devillers.1952"/><sup>:103</sup><!--{{sfn|Devillers|1962|p=103}}--> <sup>[[#Notes on Vietnam history |N.vnh]]</sup><span id="Notes on Vietnam history jump"></span><!--{{efn|name=quotations-VQL|See quotations in ''Notes on Vietnam history''.{{sfn|Vu Quoc Loc|2023a}} }}--> Ho was detained for thirteen months, starting at the Tienpao prison,<ref name="Patti.1980"/><sup>:51</sup><!--{{sfn|Patti|1980|p=51}}--> <sup>[[#Ho Tienpao prison |N.htp]]</sup><span id="Ho Tienpao prison jump"></span><!--{{efn|Tienpao in the [[Wade-Giles]] transliteration is Tianbao in [[pinyin]].{{efn|name=analysis-VQL|See the analysis in ''Notes on Vietnam History''.{{sfn|Vu Quoc Loc|2023a}}}} }}--> moving through eighteen different prisons,<ref name="Logevall.2012"/><sup>:77</sup><!--{{sfn|Logevall|2012|p=77}}--> <sup>[[#Notes on Vietnam history |N.vnh2]]</sup><span id="Notes on Vietnam history jump2"></span><!--{{efn|name=quotations-VQL}}--> and ending up at Liuchow<ref name="Patti.1980"/><sup>:46</sup><!--{{sfn|Patti|1980|p=46}}--> (now [[Wikipedia:Liuzhou|Liuzhou]]), from where he was released on 1943 September 10, after changing his name from Nguyen Ai Quoc to [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho Chi Minh]].<ref name="Patti.1980"/><sup>:453</sup><!--{{sfn|Patti|1980|p=453}}-->  At that time, the name "Nguyen Ai Quoc" was very popular, while hardly any one heard of the new name "[[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho Chi Minh]]".<sup>[[#Nguyen Ai Quoc |N.naq]]</sup><span id="Nguyen Ai Quoc jump"></span><!--{{efn|[[:vi:Hoàng_Quốc_Việt|Hoang Quoc Viet]] recounted in his [https://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/V_F8F9FACD595E4A74BCA28655493A1743 1981 interview with the PBS]: "I was sent to the southern part of the country at one point to discuss things with our comrades there. The discussion was very heated and it was very difficult to iron things out. Then I happened to mention the name Ho Chi Minh. These people in the south asked me who Ho Chi Minh was.
I told them that he was Nguyen Ai Quoc. They all stood up and clapped and said that as I was a representative sent by Ho Chi Minh then there was no need for any further discussion. This was because at that time there was a feud going on between the so called "Old Viet Minhs" and "New Viet Minhs". But when they heard from me that Ho Chi Minh was indeed Nguyen Ai Quoc, they were all overjoyed, saying that if Nguyen Ai Quoc had returned home to lead the movement then everything would be solved, that there should be unity and solidarity."}}-->

[[File:Maj Gen Claire Chennault 1945.07.23.png|150px|thumb|right|Maj. Gen. [[Wikipedia:Claire Chennault|Claire Chennault]] on 1945 Jul 23, four months after he met [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho Chi Minh]] on 1945 Mar 29.]]
[[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho Chi Minh]] returned to Vietnam in 1944 September, after obtaining the authorization from the Chinese authority, Gen. Chang Fa-Kwei (<!--[https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Fakui Zhang Fakui (German)]-->[[Wikipedia:de:Zhang Fakui|Zhang Fakui (German)]], <!--[https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_Ph%C3%A1t_Khu%C3%AA Trương Phát Khuê] (Vietnamese)-->[[Wikipedia:vi:Trương Phát Khuê|Trương Phát Khuê (Vietnamese)]]) <!--{{lang-de|[[:de:Zhang_Fakui|Gen. Chang Fa-kwei]]}} ([[:de:Zhang_Fakui|Zhang Fakui]], {{lang-vi|[[:vi:Trương_Phát_Khuê|Trương Phát Khuê]]}}){{emdash}}-->---who was under "severe pressure from the Japanese ''Ichigo'' offensive" to obtain intelligence in Indochina---and after submitting the "Outline of the Plan for the Activities of Entering Vietnam".<ref name="Tonnesson.1991"/><sup>:134</sup><!--{{sfn|Tønnesson|1991|p=134}}--> 
<sup>[[#Ho in Vietnam 1944 |N.hvn]]</sup><span id="Ho in Vietnam 1944 jump"></span>
<!--{{efn|A French report at that time stated: "more than 200 political refugees had passed from China to Tonkin, most of them armed with pistols and daggers (''poiguards''), and that among them was a certain 'Nguyen Hai Quoc', who had crossed the border under the name of 'Ho Chi Minh'. Nguyen Hai Quoc, a man 'around sixty years old', was 'the probable leader' of the Viet Minh: 'Under Nguyen Hai Quoc's leadership, the new elements coming from Kwangsi have undertaken to reawaken the movement and bring back to their former activities the implacables who had taken refuge in the mountains'" {{sfn|Tønnesson|1991|pp=118, 208}} 
}}--> 
All three protagonists---the French [[Wikipedia:Vichy_France|Vichy]] colonialists, the Japanese occupiers, and the [[Wikipedia:Viet-Minh|Viet-Minh]]---were deceived by US war plan,<sup>[[#US war plan |N.uwp]]</sup><span id="US war plan jump"></span>
<!--{{efn|"... to confuse the Japanese, possibly the French as well, concerning US 
intentions. Perhaps Roosevelt meant the plan seriously at first, and then changed 
it into a deceptive operation when he realized that it could not be carried out ... Indochina came to play a similar role in Roosevelt's war against Japan as Norway 
occupied in Churchill's war against Germany. For a long time, Churchill toyed with 
the idea of a Norwegian landing as a way of securing the transport route to Russia 
and bringing Sweden into the war. Then, when his generals and admirals adamantly 
refused to carry out the project, Norway instead became the focus of elaborate 
deception and diversion plans, aiming at inducing Hitler to keep as many troops as 
possible in an irrelevant theatre."{{sfn|Tønnesson|1991|pp=170, 220}} 
}}--> 
and expected a US invasion of Indochina.<sup>[[#US invasion of Indochina |N.uii]]</sup><span id="US invasion of Indochina jump"></span>
<!--{{efn|The US was the only country among the Allies (British and Chinese) that could invade Indochina; see Chap. 4, Colliding Plans, in Tønnesson (1991).{{sfn|Tønnesson|1991|p=156}} 
}}-->
Such expectation was the main reason<ref name="Tonnesson.1991"/><sup>:209</sup><!--{{sfn|Tønnesson|1991|p=209}}--> that, in 1945 February-March, during an "unusually cold month of February,"<ref name="Patti.1980"/><sup>:56</sup><!--{{sfn|Patti|1980|p=56}}-->
<sup>[[#Cold February 1945 |N.cf45]]</sup><span id="Cold February 1945 jump"></span>
<!--{{efn|"13-2-1945, Tết Nguyên Đán Ất-Dậu. Chưa bao giờ rét như thế này. Tại Hà Nội,  buổi trưa, hàn thử biểu xuống tới 4 độ." It has never been that cold. The temperature went down to four degrees Celcius at noon in Hanoi on 1945 Feb 13, Tết, new year day, Lunar year Ất-Dậu.{{sfn|Đoàn-Thêm|1965|p=3}}
}} -->
[[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho]] once again crossed back into China, and walked from the [[Wikipedia:vi:Pác_Bó|Pác Bó]] hamlet to [[Wikipedia:Kunming|Kunming]] to meet<sup>[[#Walking to Kunming |N.wtk]]</sup><span id="Walking to Kunming jump"></span>
<!--{{efn|It takes about two weeks to walk from [[:vi:Pác_Bó|Pác Bó]] to [[Kunming]] using likely the same road (among several others) undertaken by the invading Mongols in the thirteen century.{{sfn|Vu-Quoc-Loc|2023b}} 
}}-->
(and to "make friends with"<ref name="Tonnesson.1991"/><sup>:210</sup><!--{{sfn|Tønnesson|1991|p=210}}-->) American [[Wikipedia:Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] and [[Wikipedia:Office of War Information|OWI]] (Office of War Information) officers to exchange intelligence.<sup>[[#Ho met OSS |N.hmo]]</sup><span id="Ho met OSS jump"></span>
<!--{{efn|[[Ho Chi Minh|Ho]]'s "mission was probably to obtain information on the development of the war, try to gain Allied recognition for his league and perhaps also secure the [[Viet Minh]] a role in a forthcoming invasion".  At the same time, [[:vi:Hoàng_Quốc_Việt|Hoang Quoc Viet]] carried out a similar mission in Kwangsi (now [[Guangxi]]) with the Chinese {{lang-de|[[:de:Zhang_Fakui|Gen. Chang Fa-kwei]]}}, who told him that "I hope we shall soon meet again in Hanoi".{{sfn|Tønnesson|1991|p=210}}  See also the [https://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/V_F8F9FACD595E4A74BCA28655493A1743 PBS interview with Hoang Quoc Viet in 1981].
}}-->
<ref name="Tonnesson.1991"/><sup>:238</sup><!--{{sfn|Tønnesson|1991|p=238}}-->  [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho]]'s report to the [[Wikipedia:Office_of_Strategic_Services|OSS]] mentioned the Japanese ''coup de force'' on the evening of 1945 March 9.<ref name="Tonnesson.1991"/><sup>:238</sup><!--{{sfn|Tønnesson|1991|p=238}}--> 

In [[Wikipedia:Kunming|Kunming]], [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho]] requested [[Wikipedia:Office_of_Strategic_Services|OSS]] Lt. Charles Fenn<sup>[[#Fenn helped Ho |N.fhh]]</sup><span id="Fenn helped Ho jump"></span>
<!--{{efn|[[Office_of_Strategic_Services|OSS]] Lt. Charles Fenn helped "make Ho Chi Minh the undisputed leader of the Viet Minh in 1945".{{sfn|Bartholomew-Feis|2006|p=96}} 
}}--> 
to arrange for a meeting with Gen. [[Wikipedia:Claire Chennault|Claire Chennault]], commander of the Flying Tigers.<ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:58</sup><!--{{sfn|Patti|1980|p=58}}-->  In the meeting that occurred on 1945 Mar 29, [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho]] requested a portrait of [[Wikipedia:Claire Chennault|Chennault]], who signed across the bottom "Yours sincerely, Claire L. Chennault".<ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:58</sup><!--{{sfn|Patti|1980|p=58}}-->  [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho]] displayed the portrait of [[Wikipedia:Claire Chennault|Chennault]], along with those of [[Wikipedia:Lenin|Lenin]] and [[Wikipedia:Mao|Mao]], in his lodging at [[Wikipedia:vi:Chiến_khu_Tân_Trào|Tân Trào]] as "tangible evidence to convince skeptical Vietnamese nationalists that he had American support".<ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:58</sup><!--{{sfn|Patti|1980|p=58}}-->  As additional evidence, [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho]] also possessed six brand-new US Colt .45 pistols in original wrappings that he requested and got from Charles Fenn.<ref name="Fenn.1973"/><sup>:[https://archive.org/details/hochiminhbiograp0000fenn/page/78/mode/2up?view=theater&q=pistols 79]</sup><!--{{sfn|Fenn|1973|p=79}}--> <ref name="Bartholomew-Feis.2006"/><sup>:[https://archive.org/details/osshochiminhunex0000bart/page/158/mode/2up?q=%22pistols%22&view=theater 158]</sup><!--{{sfn|Bartholomew-Feis|2006|p=158}}--> This "seemingly insignificant quantity" of arms,<sup>[[#Ho gave pistols |N.hgp]]</sup><span id="Ho gave pistols jump"></span>
<!--{{efn|That Ho gave the new pistols to his rivals, but not to his own people, testified to his political acumen in rallying his rivals to accept him as the top leader.{{sfn|Vu Quoc Loc|2023a}}
}}--> 
together with "Chennault's autographed photograph" as evidence, convinced other factions of the primacy of the [[Wikipedia:Viet Minh|Viet Minh]].  [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho]]'s American-backing ruse worked.<ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:58</sup><!--{{sfn|Patti|1980|p=58}}-->

In [[Wikipedia:Cochin China|Cochin China]] (the south),<sup>[[#Taberd Cochin China |N.tcc]]</sup><span id="Taberd Cochin China jump"></span> 
<!--{{efn|[[Jean-Louis Taberd]] was likely among the first to explain the meaning of "[[Cochin China]]" in his 1837 scientific article; see quotation in ''Notes on Vietnam History''.{{sfn|Vu Quoc Loc|2023a}} 
}}--> 
where Bich lived and worked, [https://indochine.uqam.ca/en/historical-dictionary/1464-trn-vn-giau-h-nam-hoang-trn-vn-19112010.html Tran Van Giau] ([[Wikipedia:vi:Trần_Văn_Giàu|Trần Văn Giàu]] in Vietnamese), a [[Wikipedia:Viet Minh|Viet Minh]] leader and "[[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho Chi Minh]]'s trusted friend",<ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:[https://archive.org/details/whyvietnamprelud0000patt/page/186/mode/2up?view=theater&q=%22the+Allies+with+arms%2C+equipment+and+training%22 186]</sup><!--{{sfn|Patti|1980|p=186}}--> on 1945 Aug 22 used [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho]]'s ruse of "American backing for the [[Wikipedia:Viet Minh|Viet Minh]]", to convince other pro-Japanese nationalist groups (Phuc Quoc, Dai Viet, United National Front<ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:[https://archive.org/details/whyvietnamprelud0000patt/page/524/mode/2up?view=theater&q=%22United+National+Front%22 524]</sup><!--{{sfn|Patti|1980|p=524}}-->) and religious sects ([[Wikipedia:Cao Dai|Cao Dai]], [[Wikipedia:Hoa Hao|Hoa Hao]]) that they would be outlawed by the invading Allies, and thus should accept the leadership of the [[Wikipedia:Viet Minh|Viet Minh]], which had strong support of "the Allies with arms, equipment and training".<ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:[https://archive.org/details/whyvietnamprelud0000patt/page/186/mode/2up?view=theater&q=%22the+Allies+with+arms%2C+equipment+and+training%22 186]</sup><!--{{sfn|Patti|1980|p=186}}-->

[[File:Ho Chi Minh, Bao Dai, Siphanouvong 1945.png|200px|thumb|left|[[Wikipedia:Souphanouvong|Souphanouvong]], [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho Chi Minh]], [[Wikipedia:Bao Dai|Bao Dai]], 1945 Sep 4]]
Fearing a US invasion with the French colonialists helping, the Japanese initiated operation Bright Moon (''Meigo sakusen''), leading to a ''coup de force'' on 1945 March 9 to neutralize the French forces and to remove the French colonial administration in Indochina<ref name="Tonnesson.2007"/><sup>:65</sup> (and thus the status of [[Nguyen Ngoc Bich|Bich]]'s job in the French colonial government).
The resulting power vacuum<ref name="Tonnesson.2007"/><sup>:64</sup> following this ''coup de force'' changed the political situation, and provided a favorable setting for the [[Wikipedia:Viet Minh|Viet Minh]] takeover of the government.<ref name="Tonnesson.2007"/><sup>:73</sup>  In 1945 April, [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho]] walked a perilous journey from [[Wikipedia:vi:Pác_Bó|Pác Bó]] to [[Wikipedia:vi:Chiến_khu_Tân_Trào|Tân Trào]], the [[Wikipedia:Viet Minh|Viet Minh]] headquarters in the Liberated Area. There, on 1945 August 16, [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho]] called for a general uprising to throw out the Japanese occupiers that ultimately led to the [[Wikipedia:August Revolution|August Revolution]].<sup>[[#Power vacuum to August Revolution |N.pvar]]</sup><span id="Power vacuum to August Revolution jump"></span> 

[[File:1946 Ho Chi Minh Leclerc Sainteny 2.png|thumb|200px|right|[[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho Chi Minh]], [[Wikipedia:Philippe_Leclerc_de_Hauteclocque|Leclerc]], [[Wikipedia:Jean Sainteny|Sainteny]], 1946 Mar 18.]]
Even though being a son of a [[Cao Dai]] pope,<ref name="Tram-Huong.2003"/><!--{{sfn|Tram-Huong|2003}}--> <ref name="NNC.2018"/><!--{{sfn|Nguyen-Ngoc-Chau|2018}}--> <ref name="NNC.2021"/> <sup>[[#Cao Dai |N.cd]]</sup><span id="Cao Dai jump"></span> [[Nguyen Ngoc Bich|Bich]] joined the [[Wikipedia:Viet Minh|Viet Minh]] in 1945,<sup>[[#Bich joined Viet Minh |N.bjvm]]</sup><span id="Bich joined Viet Minh jump"></span>
<!--{{efn|See the quotation from a French doctoral thesis in  ''Nguyen Ngoc Bich (1911–1966): A Biography''.{{sfn|Nguyen-Ngoc-Chau|Vu-Quoc-Loc|2023}}
}}--> 
instead of the [[Wikipedia:Cao Dai|Cao Dai]] force.

<!--<span style="background-color:yellow">24.5.27, TO BE WRITTEN, March 6 Accords, Ellen Hammer</span>. -->
After the August Revolution in 1945, the French began to negotiate their return to Tonkin with both the Viet Minh and the Chinese army coming to disarm the defeated Japanese north of the 16th parallel.   Ho Chi Minh was weary of the Chinese, who might stay in Vietnam permanently, signed the March 6 [1946] Accords<sup>[[#March 6 Accords |N.m6a1]]</sup><span id="March 6 Accords jump1"></span> <sup>[[#March 6 Accords jump3|N.m6a3]]</sup> with Jean Sainteny to agree to let the French army under General Leclerc to enter Tonkin.  "With French troops arriving in Hanoi on March 18 [1946], Leclerc quickly established cordial relations with Ho Chi Minh."<ref name="Gunn.2013"/>

CBS reporter [[Wikipedia:David Schoenbrun|David Schoenbrun]] interviewed [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho Chi Minh]] on 1946 Sep 11, the same day that a telegram was dispatched from the High Commissioner d'Argenlieu to the French Indochina Committee on the arrest of [[Nguyen Ngoc Bich|Bich]] on 1946 Aug 25.:<sup>[[#NNC.VQL.2023 |N.bb]]</sup><span id="NNC.VQL.2023 jump"></span>
<!--{{efn|See ''Nguyen Ngoc Bich (1911–1966): A Biography''.{{sfn|Nguyen-Ngoc-Chau|Vu-Quoc-Loc|2023}}. 
}}-->
<!--
{{Quote frame 
|quote=<p><span style="font-size:110%">{{resize|120%|{{font color|blue|❝}}}} President Ho, how can you possibly fight a war against the modern French army?  You have nothing.   You've just told me, what a poor country you are. You don't even have a bank, let alone an army, and guns, and modern weapons, the French planes, tanks, napalm.  How can you fight the French?</span>
</p>
<p><span style="font-size:110%">
{{resize|120%|{{font color|blue|❝}}}}And he [Ho] said: Oh we have a lot of things that can match the French weapons.  Tanks are no good in swamps. And we have swamps in which the French tanks will sink.  And we have another secret weapon, it's nationalism. And don't think that a small ragged band cannot fight against a modern army.  It will be a war between an elephant and a tiger.  If the tiger ever stands still the elephant will crush him and pierce him with his mighty tusks. But the tiger of Indochina is not going to stand still.  We're going to hide in our jungles by day and steal out by night.  And the tiger will jump on the back of the elephant and tear huge chunks out of his flesh and then jump back into the jungle.  And after a while the mighty elephant will bleed to death.{{resize|120%|{{font color|blue|❞}}}}</span></p> |author=<span style="font-size:103%">CBS reporter [[David Schoenbrun]] |source=Youtube video [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XWY9KbIXpdI&t=190s French involvement in Vietnam & Dien Bien Phu - 1962, time 3:10].{{sfn|Giniger|1984}}</span>}}
-->
<blockquote> 
{| cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0
|-
! width="100%" | CBS Schoenbrun interviewed Ho Chi Minh, 1946 Sep 11
|-
| style="padding: 0 1.5em; text-align: justify;" | <span style="font-size:150%; color:blue">❝</span> President Ho, how can you possibly fight a war against the modern French army?  You have nothing.   You've just told me, what a poor country you are. You don't even have a bank, let alone an army, and guns, and modern weapons, the French planes, tanks, napalm.  How can you fight the French?

<span style="font-size:150%; color:blue">❝</span> And he [Ho] said: Oh we have a lot of things that can match the French weapons.  Tanks are no good in swamps. And we have swamps in which the French tanks will sink.  And we have another secret weapon, it's nationalism. And don't think that a small ragged band cannot fight against a modern army.  It will be a war between an elephant and a tiger.  If the tiger ever stands still the elephant will crush him and pierce him with his mighty tusks. But the tiger of Indochina is not going to stand still.  We're going to hide in our jungles by day and steal out by night.  And the tiger will jump on the back of the elephant and tear huge chunks out of his flesh and then jump back into the jungle.  And after a while the mighty elephant will bleed to death. <span style="font-size:150%; color:blue">❞</span>
|-
| style="padding: 0 1.5em; text-align: right;" | --- CBS reporter [[Wikipedia:David Schoenbrun|David Schoenbrun]], Youtube video [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XWY9KbIXpdI&t=190s French involvement in Vietnam & Dien Bien Phu - 1962, time 3:10].<ref name="Giniger.1984"/>
|}
</blockquote>

<!--<span style="background-color:yellow">24.5.27, Bich wrote about the French use of American-made [[napalm]] bombs in his 1962 paper.  TO BE WRITTEN</span>-->
[[Nguyen Ngoc Bich|Bich]] wrote about the French use of American-made napalm bombs; see Section [[#Napalm bombs|Napalm bombs]].

=== Franklin D. Roosevelt ===
[[File:FDR 1944 Portrait.jpg|150px|thumb|left|[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], circa 1944]]

<!--<span style="background-color:yellow">I AM HERE Updated 2024.07.21 - Started before 2023.12.30.</span>-->
If [[Wikipedia:Franklin D. Roosevelt|Franklin D. Roosevelt]] ([[Wikipedia:Franklin D. Roosevelt|FDR]]) had lived beyond 1945 Apr 12, when he died, he "would have tried to keep France from forcibly reclaiming control of Indochina, and might well have succeeded, thereby changing the flow of history,"<ref name="Logevall.2012"/><sup>:710</sup> meaning the [[Wikipedia:First Indochina War|First Indochina War]] with more than half a million deaths,<sup>[[#French War casualties |N.fwc]]</sup><span id="French War casualties jump"></span> <!--<span style="background-color:yellow">I AM HERE 2024.07.21.</span>--> and the [[Wikipedia:Second Indochina War|Second Indochina War]] with more than three million deaths,<sup>[[#American War casualties |N.awc]]</sup><span id="American War casualties jump"></span> would be avoided; then [[Nguyen Ngoc Bich|Bich]] would not join the [[Wikipedia:Viet Minh|Viet Minh]] to fight the French colonialists.

FDR blamed European empires for wars: "European colonialism had helped bring on both the First World War and the current one, he was convinced, and the continued existence of empires would in all likelihood result in future conflagrations."<ref name=Logevall.2012></ref><sup>:46</sup> "What is more, like Wilson, he [FDR] emerged from World War I convinced that the scramble for empire not only had set the European powers against one another and created the conditions that led to war, but also worked against securing a negotiated settlement during the fighting."<ref name=Logevall.2012></ref><sup>:47</sup> 

In WWII, FDR believed that "France had ceased to exist," despite having the strongest army in Europe, <ref name=Logevall.2012></ref><sup>:27</sup> and thought that European countries (France and Germany) could not live together peacefully: Both FDR and his Secretary of State Cordell Hull "believed that Franco-German disputes lay at the root of much of Europe's inability to maintain the peace".<ref name=Logevall.2012></ref><sup>:44</sup>

[[File:Atlantic Charter FDR-Churchill.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Roosevelt and Churchill, The Atlantic Charter conference, 1941]]
Moreover, de Gaulle's Indochina cause was hampered as FDR disliked de Gaulle's pomposity, egotism, and "his serene confidence that he represented the destiny of the French people."<ref name=Logevall.2012></ref><sup>:44</sup>  "In social interaction, de Gaulle was as austere and pompous as FDR was relaxed and jovial."<ref name=Logevall.2012></ref><sup>:44</sup> 
<!--"That de Gaulle shared Vichy's desire to preserve the French Empire only enhanced Roosevelt's disdain."-->
That both de Gaulle and the Vichy government wanted to preserve the French Empire further “enhanced Roosevelt’s disdain" for de Gaulle.<ref name=Logevall.2012></ref><sup>:46</sup>
Cordell Hull was convinced that "de Gaulle was a fascist and an enemy of the United States."<ref name=Logevall.2012></ref><sup>:45</sup> 
  
By the time of Pearl Harbor, FDR had become a "committed anticolonialist,"<ref name=Logevall.2012></ref><sup>:46</sup> who wanted "complete independence for all or almost all European colonies",<ref name="Logevall.2012"/><sup>:74</sup><!--{{sfn|Logevall|2012|p=74}}--> as evidenced by his speech in March 1941:
<blockquote> 
{| cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0
|-
! width="100%" | 
|-
| style="padding: 0 1.5em; text-align: justify;" | <span style="font-size:150%; color:blue">❝</span> There has never been, there isn't now, and there never will be, any race of people on earth fit to serve as masters over their fellow men.… We believe that any nationality, no matter how small, has the inherent right to its own nationhood. <span style="font-size:150%; color:blue">❞</span>
|-
| style="padding: 0 1.5em; text-align: right;" | ---[[Wikipedia:Franklin D. Roosevelt|Franklin D. Roosevelt]], address to White House Correspondents' Association, March 1941.<ref name="Logevall.2012"/><sup>:72</sup><!--{{sfn|Logevall|2012|p=72}}-->
|}
</blockquote>
<!--"Even before the start of World War II, FDR had reached the conclusion that, for good or ill, complete independence was foreordained for all or almost all the European colonies." Logevall 2012 p.74-->

[[File:Hurley Chiang Kai-Shek Chennault Wedemeyer 1945.png|thumb|200px|left|US ambassador Hurley, Generalissimo Chiang Kai-Shek, Gen. Claire Chennault, Gen. Albert Wedemeyer, 1945]]
[[Wikipedia:FDR|Roosevelt]]'s anti-colonialist speech was subsequently encoded in the third point of [[Wikipedia:The Atlantic Charter|The Atlantic Charter]],<sup>[[#Complete Atlantic Charter |N.cac]]</sup><span id="Complete Atlantic Charter jump"></span>
<!--{{efn|See the [https://www.fdrlibrary.org/atlantic-charter complete Atlantic Charter] from the [[FDR]] Presidential Library and Museum.}}--> 
which Churchill was reluctant to agree to, worrying that it would affect the British colonies:<sup>[[#Churchill, Atlantic Charter |N.chac]]</sup><span id="Churchill, Atlantic Charter jump"></span>
<!--
{{Quote frame |quote=<span style="font-size:110%">{{resize|120%|{{font color|blue|❝}}}} Third, they{{efn|"They" here means [[FDR]] and [[Churchill]] and their respective governments.{{sfn|FRUS-Atlantic|1941}}}} respect the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live; and they wish to see sovereign rights and self-government restored to those who have been forcibly deprived of them;{{resize|120%|{{font color|blue|❞}}}}</span> |author=<span style="font-size:103%">[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and [[Winston Churchill]] |source=[[The Atlantic Charter]], August 14, 1941.{{sfn|FRUS-Atlantic|1941}}</span>}}
-->
{| cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0
|-
! width="100%" | The Atlantic Charter, 1941
|-
| style="padding: 0 1.5em; text-align: justify;" | <span style="font-size:150%; color:blue">❝</span> Third, they<sup>[[#They in Atlantic Charter |N.tac]]</sup><span id="They in Atlantic Charter jump"></span><!--{{efn|"They" here means [[FDR]] and [[Churchill]] and their respective governments.{{sfn|FRUS-Atlantic|1941}} }}--> respect the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live; and they wish to see sovereign rights and self-government restored to those who have been forcibly deprived of them; <span style="font-size:150%; color:blue">❞</span>
|-
| style="padding: 0 1.5em; text-align: right;" | ---[[Wikipedia:Franklin D. Roosevelt|Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and [[Wikipedia:Winston Churchill|Winston Churchill]], [[Wikipedia:The Atlantic Charter|The Atlantic Charter]], August 14, 1941.<ref name="FRUS-Atlantic.1941"/><!--{{sfn|FRUS-Atlantic|1941}}-->
|}

[[Wikipedia:The Atlantic Charter|The Atlantic Charter]] inspired Third-World countries from Algeria to Vietnam in their fight for independence,<ref name=FRUS-Atlantic.1941/> as Ho Chi Minh often referred to [[Wikipedia:The Atlantic Charter|The Atlantic Charter]] in his letters to US government officials: “the carrying out of the Atlantic and San Francisco Charters implies the eradication of imperialism and all forms of colonial oppression,” wrote Ho Chi Minh to US Secretary of State James F. Byrnes in the [[Wikipedia:Harry S. Truman|Harry S. Truman]] administration on 1945 Oct 22.<ref name="Ho to Byrnes.1945"/><sup>:2</sup> <sup>[[#Ho Atlantic Charter |N.hac]]</sup><span id="Ho Atlantic Charter jump"></span>

[[File:FDR on 1945 Apr 11, the day before he died.jpg|thumb|150px|right|FDR on 1945 Apr 11, the day before he died]]
<!--
[[File:Potsdam Stalin Truman Gromyko Byrnes Molotov 1945 Jul 18.png|thumb|200px|left|Potsdam Stalin Truman Gromyko Byrnes Molotov 1945 Jul 18]]
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One of Roosevelt's great war aims was to liberate the Indochinese, whom he dismissed as "a people of small stature," from the French colonialism.<ref name=Tonnesson.1991></ref><sup>:1</sup>

FDR envisioned a new world order in which the "four policemen," i.e., the US, the USSR, Great Britain and China, would maintain peace in the world.  He discussed this concept with Stalin in Tehran in 1943.<ref name=Tonnesson.2007/><sup>:60</sup>  But failing to build up China as a great power, FDR encountered difficulties with his vision for Indochina.<ref name=Tonnesson.2007/><sup>:60</sup>

Yet, despite the "accepted wisdom" of historians prior to 2007 that (1) "Roosevelt abandoned or watered down his Indochina policy before he died," and (2) "the Truman administration built upon Roosevelt’s policy revision by endorsing the French return to Indochina," a 2007 argument was presented that "Roosevelt, though he was under pressure to abandon his policy, did not yield before he died."<ref name=Tonnesson.2007/><sup>:60</sup>

"By fuelling French and Japanese expectations of a US invasion, Roosevelt, Wedemeyer and the [[Wikipedia:Office_of_Strategic_Services|OSS]] prompted a Franco-Japanese confrontation [i.e., the Japanese ''coup de force'' on 1945 March 9], which in turn paved the way for revolution,"<!--{{sfn|Tønnesson|1991|p=220}}--><ref name=Tonnesson.1991></ref><sup>:220</sup> i.e., the [[Wikipedia:August Revolution|August Revolution]] in 1945, the year [[Nguyen Ngoc Bich|Bich]] joined the Viet Minh  to fight the French.

<span style="background-color:yellow">I AM HERE 24.10.29.</span>

=== Harry S. Truman ===
[[File:Harry S. Truman.jpg|150px|thumb|left|[[Harry S. Truman]], circa 1945]]

<!--
[[File:Potsdam Truman Churchill Stalin 1945 Jul 17.png|thumb|200px|right|Potsdam Truman Churchill Stalin 1945 Jul 17]]
-->

[[Wikipedia:Ellen Hammer|Ellen J. Hammer]] was the first American-born historian<sup>[[#Virginia Thompson |N.vt]]</sup><span id="Virginia Thompson jump"></span> with a deep knowledge of the French colonial rule in Indochina in the early 1950s during the [[Wikipedia:First Indochina War|First Indochina War]].  Dr. Hammer's<!--{{sfn|Pace|2001}}--><ref name=Pace.2001/> <sup>[[#Ellen Hammer |N.ejh]]</sup><span id="Ellen Hammer jump"></span>
highly influential book titled ''The Struggle for Indochina''<!--{{sfn|Hammer|1954}}--><ref name="Hammer.1954"/> <sup>[[#Hammer (1954) |N.ehb]]</sup><span id="Hammer (1954) jump"></span> 
<!--{{em dash}}-->---published in 1954 well before the United States sent American troops to Vietnam in the 1960s<!--{{em dash}}-->---described the events, politics, and historic personalities leading to the [[Wikipedia:First Indochina War|First Indochina War]].  Her works were considered among the must-read books by respected historians on Vietnam history, as Osborne (1967)<!--{{sfn|Osborne|1967}}--><ref name="Osborne.1967"/> wrote: "Indeed, any serious student of Viet-Nam will have either read Devillers,<sup>[[#Devillers ref |N.pd]]</sup><span id="Devillers ref jump"></span>
[[Wikipedia:Jean Lacouture|Lacouture]], [[Wikipedia:Bernard B. Fall|Fall]], [[Wikipedia:Ellen Hammer|Hamme]]r and Lancaster's<ref name=Lancaster.1961/> 
<sup>[[#Lancaster book |N.dlb]]</sup><span id="Lancaster book jump"></span> 
studies already, or will be better served by reading them first hand."  To give a historical context within which [[Nguyen Ngoc Bich|Bich]] fought the French colonists, there is no better English source to begin than Dr. Hammer's Vietnam-history book.

The American dilemma (1-To help the French to re-establish its colony in Vietnam or 2-To help free the Vietnamese from the yoke of French colonialism) was described by Hammer as follows:
<blockquote> 
{| cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0
|-
! width="100%" | 
|-
| style="padding: 0 1.5em; text-align: justify;" | <span style="font-size:150%; color:blue">❝</span> The United States has entangled itself in a war in a distant corner of Asia in which it resolutely does not want to participate and from which it equally resolutely cannot abstain. It has committed itself to the cause of France [ [[Wikipedia:French Indochina|French Indochina]] ] and of [[Wikipedia:Bao Dai|Bao Dai]], but enough of the old spirit of anticolonialism is left to make this a somewhat unsavory commitment: it cannot bring itself wholly to ignore the fact that the free world looks less than free to a people whose country is being fought over by a foreign army. Aware that a lasting peace can be built only on satisfaction of the national aspirations of the Indochinese, the United States must at the same time conciliate a France reluctant to abandon her colonial past.  <span style="font-size:150%; color:blue">❞</span>
|-
| style="padding: 0 1.5em; text-align: right;" | ---Ellen Hammer (1954), [https://archive.org/details/struggleforindoc0000hamm_h0h0/page/n6/mode/2up ''The struggle for Indochina''], [https://archive.org/details/struggleforindoc0000hamm_h0h0/page/n15/mode/2up?q=march+6+free+state Preface p. xii].<!--{{sfn|Hammer|1954|p=xii}}--><ref name=Hammer.1954/><sup>:xii</sup>
|}
</blockquote>

[[File:Wedemeyer in China 1945 b.png|thumb|right|150px|US Gen. [[Wikipedia:Albert C. Wedemeyer|Albert C. Wedemeyer]], China, 1945]]
Under US President [[Wikipedia:Franklin D. Roosevelt|Franklin D. Roosevelt]], the US policy was to remove the French colonists from Indochina,<!--{{sfn|Fall|1966|p=57}}--><ref name=Fall.1966/><sup>:57</sup> <sup>[[#NNC-VQL-more-details |N.bq1]]</sup><span id="NNC-VQL-more-details jump1"></span> as the French official [[Wikipedia:Jean Sainteny|Jean Sainteny]] lamented that he was "face to face with a deliberate Allied maneuver to evict the French from Indochina and that at the present time the Allied attitude is more harmful than that of the [[Wikipedia:Viet-Minh|Viet-Minh]]".<!--{{sfn|Fall|1966|p=68–69}}--><ref name=Fall.1966/><sup>:68–69</sup> <sup>[[#NNC-VQL-more-details |N.bq2]]</sup><span id="NNC-VQL-more-details jump2"></span>
<!--{{efn|name=NNC-VQL-more-details|See more detailed quotations in ''Nguyen Ngoc Bich (1911–1966): A Biography''{{sfn|Nguyen-Ngoc-Chau|Vu-Quoc-Loc|2023}}}}-->

<!--Bernard. B. Fall (1966), The Two Viet-Nams: A political and military analysis, Praeger, New York. p.57-->
<blockquote> 
{| cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0
|-
! width="100%" | 
|-
| style="padding: 0 1.5em; text-align: justify;" | <span style="font-size:150%; color:blue">❝</span> General Wedemeyer's orders not to aid the French came directly from the War Department. Apparently it was American policy then that French Indochina would not be returned to the French. The American government was interested in seeing the French forcibly ejected from Indochina so the problem of postwar separation from their colony would be easier. . . . While American transports in China avoided Indochina, the British flew aerial supply missions for the French all the way from Calcutta, dropping tommy guns, grenades and mortars.  <span style="font-size:150%; color:blue">❞</span>
|-
| style="padding: 0 1.5em; text-align: right;" | ---Bernard B. Fall (1966), [https://archive.org/details/twovietnams0000unse/page/n7/mode/2up ''The Two Viet-Nams: A political and military analysis''], p.57.<!--{{sfn|Fall|1966|p=57}}--><ref name=Fall.1966/><sup>:57</sup>
|}
</blockquote>

<!--
After [[FDR]] died on 1945 Apr 12 (cite Langguth, Chronology).
<span style="background-color:yellow">I AM HERE 2023.04.29.</span>
[[User:Egm4313.s12|Egm4313.s12]] ([[User talk:Egm4313.s12|talk]]) 01:48, 29 April 2023 (UTC)
-->

<!--
<gallery caption="French napalm bombs in First Indochina War" mode=packed widths="260" heights="250">
File:French_plane_dropped_napalm_bomb_on_Vietminh_force.png|[https://www.militaryfactory.com/aircraft/french-indochina-war-aircraft.php French plane] pulling up after a dive to drop [[napalm]] bombs on [[Vietminh]] force ambushing a French battalion. The white streak below the plane, clearly visible against the dark background of trees further behind, was the [[napalm]] bomb that was just dropped. 1953 December.
File:French indochina napalm 1953-12 1.png|French [[napalm]] bomb exploded over [[Vietminh]] force. 1953 December. This image during the (French) [[First Indochina War]], conjuring up the destruction of the [[napalm]] on the human flesh,<ref name=Tong.2018/> <sup>[[#Napalm girl |N.ng1]]</sup><span id="Napalm girl jump1"></span> 
portended what was to come more than ten years later during the (American) [[Second Indochina War]].
</gallery>
-->

<!--[[File:1stIndochinaWar001.jpg|150px|thumb|French Marine commandos wade ashore off the Annam coast in July 1950]]-->
<gallery caption="Déjà Vu: 'Americans had different dreams from the French, but followed the same footsteps.' Bernard B. Fall" mode=packed widths="260" heights="250">
File:1stIndochinaWar001.jpg|French Marines wading ashore off the coast of Annam (Central Vietnam) in July 1950, using US-supplied ships, weapons, equipment.  Quote by Bernard Fall in gallery title.<!--{{sfn|Logevall|2012|p=702}}--><ref name=Logevall.2012/><sup>:702</sup>
File:Marines Da Nang Vietnam 1965.04.30.png|US Marines wading ashore in Da Nang, Central Vietnam, on 1965 Apr 30, exactly 10 years before the fall of Saigon on 1975 Apr 30. 
</gallery>

=== War began ===
<span style="background-color:yellow">I AM HERE 24.10.29.</span>
Text commented out in this section to debug references listed, but not cited.

<!--
The First Indochina War started on 1945 September 23 with the brutal repression of the Vietnamese by some 1,400 French soldiers, who had been imprisoned by the Japanese, then freed and re-armed by British General Gracey, and who went on a rampage, beating, lynching any Vietnamese they saw on the street.{{sfn|Logevall|2012|p=115}} ["Thus began, it could be argued, the Vietnamese war of liberation against France. It would take several more months before the struggle would extend to the entire south, and more than a year before it also engulfed Hanoi and the north, which is why historians typically date the start of the war as late 1946 [Dec 19].{{sfn|Tønnesson|2010|p=xii}} But this date, September 23, 1945, may be as plausible a start date as any."]

The situation in [[Tonkin]] ([[North Vietnam]]) in March 1946 was as follows:
{{blockquote|text=
There were some 185,000 Chinese soldiers north of the sixteenth parallel and some 30,000 Japanese, many of them still in possession of their arms. All the French troops in the north were disarmed and held prisoner in the Hanoi Citadel, where the Japanese had left them; there were also some 25,000 Frenchmen living in Hanoi. Only 15,000 French troops were in Saigon and they had to travel several days to get to Haiphong before they could go to Hanoi.
|multiline=yes
|author=Ellen Hammer (1954)
|title=[https://archive.org/details/struggleforindoc0000hamm_h0h0/page/151/mode/2up ''The struggle for Indochina''], [https://archive.org/details/struggleforindoc0000hamm_h0h0/page/n15/mode/2up?q=march+6+free+state p. 151].{{sfn|Hammer|1954}}
}}
Yet, the French hawkish colonists in [[Cochinchina]] ([[South Vietnam]]){{em dash}}led by the "warmonger"{{efn|name=warmongers}} triumvirate "High Commissioner Admiral Georges Thierry d'Argenlieu (the "Bloody Monk"),{{efn|"As dubbed by the left-wing press in Paris".{{sfn|Logevall|2012|p=163}}}} Supreme Commander General Jean-Etienne Valluy, and Federal Commissioner of Political Affairs Léon Pignon"{{sfn|Tønnesson|2010}}{{efn|name=warmongers|"The main warmongers, who must bear the brunt of the responsibility, not only for the seizure of Haiphong in November, but also for the outbreak in Hanoi, were a French triumvirate in Saigon..."{{sfn|Tønnesson|2010|loc=pp. 5–6}}---took a "gigantic gamble in dispatching an invasion force to the port city of Haiphong",{{sfn|Tønnesson|2010}} fell into the "Chinese trap",{{sfn|Tønnesson|2010}} in which the Chinese with a superior army forced both the French and the Vietnamese to sign the March 6 Agreement,{{efn|"Arriving at Haiphong in the morning of March 6, the French ﬂeet sailed right into a Chinese trap. The French thought they had secured Chinese support for disembarking troops in the north in a treaty signed in Chongqing on February 28, but Chiang Kai-shek's government fooled them. When the French ships approached Haiphong harbor, the Chinese stood ready to resist the French onslaught and actually ﬁred at the ships.  Meanwhile, the Chinese were pressuring both the Vietnamese government and a French team of negotiators in Hanoi to sign a deal on behalf of their two nations.  Neither the French nor the [[Democratic Republic of Vietnam|DRV]] could afford an open confrontation with China."{{sfn|Tønnesson|2010|p=5}}<sup>, p.5</sup>}} which "was simply an armistice that provided a transient illusion of agreement where actually no agreement existed".{{sfn|Hammer|1954|p=157}}
Indeed, after a short period following a "modus vivendi", the [[First Indochina War]] started on 1946 December 19.{{sfn|Tønnesson|2010}}{{efn|There are several different interpretations by respected historians (such as Fall, Hammer, Devillers, and Tønnesson) on how the [[First Indochina War]] started on 1946 December 19.{{sfn|Tønnesson|2010|p=5}}{{sfn|Tønnesson|2010|p=262, Note 10}} }}<sup>, p.5 and Note 10 on p.262</sup>

-->

☛   NOT DONE, TO ADD: [[User:Egm4313.s12|Egm4313.s12]] ([[User talk:Egm4313.s12|talk]]) 15:17, 8 April 2023 (UTC) 
* Brutal repression by British and French forces in Cochinchina (South Vietnam)
* Quotations from Tønnesson (2010){{sfn|Tønnesson|2010}} and Donaldson (1996){{sfn|Donaldson|1996}}

=== Resistance ===
[[File:Cai Rang bridge today.png|thumb|right|250px|Cai Rang bridge, Can Tho, 2024.  Nguyen Ngoc Bich sabotaged this bridge during the First Indochina War.]]
After graduating in 1935 from the [[Wikipedia:École des ponts ParisTech|École nationale des ponts et chaussées]], a civil engineering school, Nguyen Ngoc Bich returned home to work as a civil engineer for the colonial government at the [[Wikipedia:Soc Trang|Soc-Trang]] Irrigation Department until the Japanese coup d'état in Viet Nam (1945 Sep 03). Bich then joined the Resistance in the Soc-Trang base area and was appointed Deputy Commander of the [[Wikipedia:9th_Military_Region_(Vietnam_People's_Army)|Military Zone 9]] (<!--{{plain link|url=https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%C3%A2n_khu_9,_Qu%C3%A2n_%C4%91%E1%BB%99i_nh%C3%A2n_d%C3%A2n_Vi%E1%BB%87t_Nam|name=vi}}-->[https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%C3%A2n_khu_9,_Qu%C3%A2n_%C4%91%E1%BB%99i_nh%C3%A2n_d%C3%A2n_Vi%E1%BB%87t_Nam vi]), established on 1945 Dec 10, and included the provinces of Cần Thơ, Sóc Trăng, Rạch Giá, together with six other provinces.  Bich sabotaged many bridges that were notoriously difficult to destroy such as [https://www.google.com/maps/place/C%E1%BA%A7u+C%C3%A1i+R%C4%83ng,+Ninh+Ki%E1%BB%81u,+C%E1%BA%A7n+Th%C6%A1,+Vietnam/@10.0075615,105.7499666,17z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m6!3m5!1s0x31a089ba70b1c3b5:0xbddcccf9f6fadd75!8m2!3d10.0075615!4d105.7499666!16s%2Fg%2F1jkxqlp4t Cai-Rang Bridge]<!--{{plain link|url=https://www.google.com/maps/place/C%E1%BA%A7u+C%C3%A1i+R%C4%83ng,+Ninh+Ki%E1%BB%81u,+C%E1%BA%A7n+Th%C6%A1,+Vietnam/@10.0075615,105.7499666,17z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m6!3m5!1s0x31a089ba70b1c3b5:0xbddcccf9f6fadd75!8m2!3d10.0075615!4d105.7499666!16s%2Fg%2F1jkxqlp4t|name=Cai-Rang bridge}}--> in [[Wikipedia:Can Tho|Can Tho]]
<!--{{em dash}}-->---
where a street was named to honor his feats<!--{{sfn|CTDN|2019}}--><ref name="CTDN.2019"/> <sup>[[#NNB street |N.nnbs]]</sup><span id="NNB street jump"></span>
<!--{{efn|A street in Can Tho is named Nguyen Ngoc Bich to commemorate him blowing up the {{plain link|url=https://www.google.com/maps/place/C%E1%BA%A7u+C%C3%A1i+R%C4%83ng,+Ninh+Ki%E1%BB%81u,+C%E1%BA%A7n+Th%C6%A1,+Vietnam/@10.0075615,105.7499666,17z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m6!3m5!1s0x31a089ba70b1c3b5:0xbddcccf9f6fadd75!8m2!3d10.0075615!4d105.7499666!16s%2Fg%2F1jkxqlp4t|name=Cai-Rang bridge}} in this city to stop the French troops advance in 1945–46.<ref name="CTDN.2019"/> The short biography in Vietnamese, together with an English translation, in this street-naming plan is provided in the document ''Nguyen Ngoc Bich (1911–1966): A Biography,''<ref name=NNC.VQL.2023/>
}}-->
<!--{{em dash}}-->---
<!--{{plain link|url=https://www.google.com/maps/place/C%E1%BA%A7u+Nhu+Gia,+M%E1%BB%B9+Xuy%C3%AAn,+S%C3%B3c+Tr%C4%83ng,+Vietnam/@9.5026064,105.8508548,17z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m6!3m5!1s0x31a1ab6d2c09bbf7:0x4c0acc20832a1059!8m2!3d9.5026064!4d105.8530435!16s%2Fg%2F1v41xyrv|name=Nhu-Gia Bridge}}-->[https://www.google.com/maps/place/C%E1%BA%A7u+Nhu+Gia,+M%E1%BB%B9+Xuy%C3%AAn,+S%C3%B3c+Tr%C4%83ng,+Vietnam/@9.5026064,105.8508548,17z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m6!3m5!1s0x31a1ab6d2c09bbf7:0x4c0acc20832a1059!8m2!3d9.5026064!4d105.8530435!16s%2Fg%2F1v41xyrv Nhu-Gia Bridge] in [[Wikipedia:Soc Trang|Soc Trang]], etc., blocking the advance of French forces directed by General Valluy and General Nyo, who were under the general command of General [[Wikipedia:Philippe_Leclerc_de_Hauteclocque|Philippe Leclerc]], commander of the [[Wikipedia:French Far East Expeditionary Corps|French Far East Expeditionary Corps]] (''Corps expéditionnaire français en Extrême-Orient'', CEFEO).
Between 1946 March 6, when the March 6 Accords were signed,<sup>[[#March 6 Accords |N.m6a3]]</sup><span id="March 6 Accords jump3"></span> and 1946 December 19, when most historians used as the date that started the First Indochina War, in Cochinchina, the military situation did not favor the Vietnamese:
<blockquote> 
{| cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0
|-
! width="100%" | 
|-
| style="padding: 0 1.5em; text-align: justify;" | <span style="font-size:150%; color:blue">❝</span> Outside Saigon the various nationalist resistance groups, weakened though they were by the months of warfare with the British and French, still controlled large sections of the Cochin Chinese countryside. Ho Chi Minh proposed to General Leclerc the sending of mixed Franco-Vietnamese commissions to establish peace in Cochin China after the signing of the March 6 accord, but the General saw no reason for this in what was supposed to be French territory. When Ho sent his own emissaries to the south, they were arrested by the French who continued to regard Cochin China as a French colony, claiming a free hand there until the referendum could be held. This led to difficult local problems, as in the case of the Vietnamese emissary sent by one Vietnamese zone commander [Nguyen Ngoc Bich] to discuss a cease-fire with the local French commanding officer. The emissary was unceremoniously informed that the French expected complete capitulation—the surrender of arms and prisoners—and that this was an ultimatum. They had until the 31st of March to comply; if they failed to do so, the fighting would begin again. Before the Vietnamese left French headquarters, the French officer took his name and it was soon public knowledge that the French had put a price on his head as well as on that of his commander, Nguyen Ngoc Bich. In this particular region of Cochin China fighting resumed by the end of the month.  <span style="font-size:150%; color:blue">❞</span>
|-
| style="padding: 0 1.5em; text-align: right;" | ---Ellen Hammer (1954), [https://archive.org/details/struggleforindoc0000hamm_h0h0/page/n5/mode/2up ''The struggle for Indochina''], [https://archive.org/details/struggleforindoc0000hamm_h0h0/page/157/mode/2up?q=march+6+free+state pp. 157–158].<!--{{sfn|Hammer|1954}}--><ref name=Hammer.1954/>
|}
</blockquote>

Chester L. Cooper was an American diplomat and a key negotiator in many critical agreements in the 1950s and '60s, beginning with his involvement in the Geneva Conference on Indochina in 1954.<!--{{sfn|Fox|2005}}--><ref name="Fox.2005"/>
In his 2005 memoir ''In the Shadows of History: 50 Years Behind the Scenes of Cold War Diplomacy'', "he recounted his association with a constellation of historic figures that included [[Wikipedia:John F. Kennedy|John F. Kennedy]], [[Wikipedia:Lyndon B. Johnson|Lyndon B. Johnson]], [[Wikipedia:Nikita S. Khrushchev|Nikita S. Khrushchev]] and [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho Chi Minh]]".<!--{{sfn|Fox|2005}}--><ref name="Fox.2005"/> <sup>[[#Chester Cooper |N.clc]]</sup><span id="Chester Cooper jump"></span>
<!--{{efn|A summary of an obituary for Chester L. Cooper is in the document ''Nguyen Ngoc Bich (1911–1966): A Biography''.<ref name=NNC.VQL.2023/>
}}-->
Dr. Cooper
<sup>[[#Dr. Cooper |N.dcc]]</sup><span id="Dr. Cooper jump"></span>
<!--{{efn|Chester L. Cooper undertook his doctoral study in urban land economics, and after an interruption due to WWII, received his PhD in 1960.<ref name=Colman.2012/>
}}-->
<!--{{em dash}}-->---
who acquired a deep knowledge of Vietnam history from his years in Asia, from 1941 to 1954, first working for the [[Wikipedia:Office of Strategic Services|Office of Strategic Services]]<sup>[[#HCM and OSS |N.hos]]</sup><span id="HCM and OSS jump"></span>
<!--{{efn|name=OSS-HCM|For the relationship between the OSS and Ho Chi Minh during WWII, see [[Wikipedia:OSS Deer Team|OSS Deer Team]].}}--> 
in China, then for the [[Wikipedia:CIA|CIA]] in 1947, and subsequently became head of the Far East staff of the [[Wikipedia:National_Intelligence_Council|Office of National Estimates]] in 1950<!--{{sfn|Colman|2012}}--><ref name=Colman.2012/><!--{{em dash}}-->---devoted some three to four pages to describe Dr. Bich in his Vietnam-history book [https://archive.org/details/lostcrusadeameri00coop/mode/2up ''The Lost Crusade: America in Vietnam''], in particular some aspects of Bich's resistance activities: 
[[File:HD-SN-99-02042.JPEG|150px|thumb|left|A [[Viet_Minh|Viet-Minh]] suspect captured by a French-Foreign-Legion patrol in 1954.]]
<blockquote> 
{| cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0
|-
! width="100%" | 
|-
| style="padding: 0 1.5em; text-align: justify;" | <span style="font-size:150%; color:blue">❝</span> As commander of the Viet Minh forces in the Delta during the late 40s, Bich became one of the most popular local heroes. During 1946 the Viet Minh hierarchy became concerned that Bich might pose a threat to the aims of the Viet Minh in the southern part of Vietnam, and by the end of that year Ho apparently decided that Bich had served his purpose in the Delta. He was "invited" to move North to become a member of the Viet Minh political and military headquarters in Hanoi. Bich was reluctant to leave his command, not only because of his desire to continue the fight against the French, but also because he felt uneasy about leaving his base of power. Nonetheless, he made his way north via the nationalist underground to Hanoi.

A day or two before Bich was to report to the Viet Minh headquarters, the French discovered his hiding place near Hanoi. Since he was on the French "most wanted" list, he was subjected to an intensive and unpleasant interrogation.  <span style="font-size:150%; color:blue">❞</span>
|-
| style="padding: 0 1.5em; text-align: right;" | ---Chester L. Cooper (1970), [https://archive.org/details/lostcrusadeameri00coop/page/n5/mode/2up ''The Lost Crusade: America in Vietnam''], [https://archive.org/details/lostcrusadeameri00coop/page/122/mode/2up?q=ngoc+bich p. 122].<!--{{sfn|Cooper|1970}}--><ref name=Cooper.1970/>
|}
</blockquote>

[[File:Vietnamese_refugees_board_LST_516_during_Operation_Passage_to_Freedom,_October_1954_(030630-N-0000X-001).jpg|150px|thumb|right|Vietnamese refugees boarding the US Navy ship LST 516 during Operation Passage to Freedom, October 1954.  The cloth banner hung above the ship number 516 reads: "Your Passage to Freedom" with a Vietnamese translation below.]]
[[Wikipedia:Joseph Buttinger|Joseph A. Buttinger]] was an ardent advocate for refugees of persecution, and a "renowned authority on Vietnam and the American war" in that country.<!--{{sfn|Lambert|1992}}--><ref name=Lambert.1992/> 
In 1940, he helped founded the [[Wikipedia:International Rescue Committee|International Rescue Committee]], "a nonprofit organization aiding refugees of political, religious and racial persecution", and while "working with refugees in Vietnam in the 1950s, he became immersed in the history, culture, and politics of that nation".<!--{{sfn|Lambert|1992}}--><ref name=Lambert.1992/>  His scholarship was in high demand during the Vietnam War. 
The New York Times described his 
his two-volume Vietnam-history book, ''Vietnam: A Dragon Embattled'',<ref name=Buttinger.1967a/><ref name=Buttinger.1967b/>
<sup>[[#Buttinger-review |N.jbr1]]</sup><span id="Buttinger-review jump1"></span>
<!--{{efn|name=fn2-Buttinger-review|Osborne (1967), a Vietnam scholar, provided a critical review<ref name="Osborne.1967"/> of [[Wikipedia:Joseph Buttinger|Joseph Buttinger]]'s two-volume book.<ref name=Buttinger.1967a/><ref name=Buttinger.1967b/>  A recent [https://www.goodreads.com/en/book/show/7760244 summary] of [[Wikipedia:Joseph Buttinger|Joseph Buttinger]]'s book was provided by Stefania Dzhanamova on 2021 Aug 11 on Goodreads.
}}--> 
as "a monumental work" that "marks a strategic breakthrough in the serious study of Vietnamese politics in America" and as "the most thorough, informative and, over all, the most impressive book on Vietnam yet published in America".<!--{{sfn|Lambert|1992}}--><ref name=Lambert.1992/> 
[[Wikipedia:Joseph Buttinger|Joseph Buttinger]] wrote in [https://archive.org/details/vietnamdragonemb02butt/page/n5/mode/2up ''Vietnam: A Dragon Embattled'', Vol. 2]<!--{{efn|name=fn-NNB-hero}}--> 
<!--on [https://archive.org/details/vietnamdragonemb02butt/page/850/mode/2up?q=ngoc+bich p. 850],-->
that Dr. Bich was "the resistance hero" whom "Diem had no success" to convince to join his cabinet:
<blockquote> 
{| cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0
|-
! width="100%" | 
|-
| style="padding: 0 1.5em; text-align: justify;" | <span style="font-size:150%; color:blue">❝</span> Diem left Paris for Saigon on June 24, accompanied by his brother Luyen, by Tran Chanh Thanh, and by Nguyen Van Thoai, a relative of the Ngo family and the only prominent exile willing to join Diem's Cabinet. With others, such as the resistance hero Nguyen Ngoc Bich, Diem had no success. He tried unsuccessfully to win Nguyen Manh Ha, a Catholic who had been Ho Chi Minh's first Minister of Economics but who had parted with the Vietminh in December, 1946. These men, and others too, rejected Diem's concept of government, which clearly aimed at a one-man rule. Nor did they share Diem's illusions about the chances of preventing a Geneva settlement favorable to the Vietminh. Diem apparently believed that the National Army, no longer fighting under the French but for an independent government, would quickly become effective and reduce the gains made by the Vietminh.  <span style="font-size:150%; color:blue">❞</span>
|-
| style="padding: 0 1.5em; text-align: right;" | ---[[Wikipedia:Joseph Buttinger|Joseph Buttinger]] (1967), [https://archive.org/details/vietnamdragonemb02butt/page/n5/mode/2up ''Vietnam: A Dragon Embattled'', Vol.2], [https://archive.org/details/vietnamdragonemb02butt/page/850/mode/2up?q=ngoc+bich p. 850].<!--{{sfn|Buttinger|1967b|p=850|ps=, Vol. 2.}}{{efn|name=fn-NNB-hero}}{{efn|name=fn2-Buttinger-review}}--><sup>[[#Buttinger-review |N.jbr2]]</sup><span id="Buttinger-review jump2"></span>
|}
</blockquote>

That Nguyen Ngoc Bich was being hunted by the French colonists was described in [[Wikipedia:Joseph Buttinger|Joseph Buttinger]]'s book:<ref name=Buttinger.1967a/><sup>:641</sup>
<blockquote> 
{| cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0
|-
! width="100%" |
|-
| style="padding: 0 1.5em; text-align: justify;" | <span style="font-size:150%; color:blue">❝</span> [Note] 9. Miss Hammer cites the case of an emissary sent by Nguyen Ngoc Bich. The French took down his name when he came to their headquarters to negotiate a cease-fire, and "it was soon public knowledge that the French had put a price on his head as well as on that of his commander, Nguyen Ngoc Bich" (ibid., p. 158).  <span style="font-size:150%; color:blue">❞</span>
|-
| style="padding: 0 1.5em; text-align: right;" | ---[[Wikipedia:Joseph Buttinger|Joseph Buttinger]] (1967), [https://archive.org/details/vietnamdragonemb01butt/page/n5/mode/2up ''Vietnam: A Dragon Embattled'', Vol.1], [https://archive.org/details/vietnamdragonemb01butt/page/640/mode/2up?q=ngoc+bich p. 641].<sup>[[#NNB-hero-2 |N.pbh]]</sup><span id="NNB-hero-2 jump"></span>
|}
</blockquote>

=== Napalm bombs === 
<gallery caption="French use of American-made napalm bombs" mode=packed heights="300">
File:French_plane_dropped_napalm_bomb_on_Vietminh_force.png|French plane pulling up after a dive to drop Napalm bombs on Vietminh force ambushing a French battalion. The white streak below the plane, clearly visible against the dark background of trees further behind, was the Napalm bomb that was just dropped. 1953 December.
File:French indochina napalm 1953-12 1.png|French Napalm bomb exploded over Vietminh force.  1953 December. This image during the (French) [[Wikipedia:First Indochina War|First Indochina War]], conjuring up the horrific destruction of the Napalm on the human flesh,<!--{{sfn|Tong|2018}}--><ref name=Tong.2018/> <sup>[[#Napalm girl |N.ng2]]</sup><span id="Napalm girl jump2"></span> portended what was to come more than ten years later during the (American) [[Wikipedia:Second Indochina War|Second Indochina War]] with even more deadly advanced Napalm technology. 
</gallery>
<!--
[[File:French_plane_dropped_napalm_bomb_on_Vietminh_force.png|200px|thumb|center|French plane pulling up after a dive to drop Napalm bombs on Vietminh force ambushing a French battalion. The white streak below the plane, clearly visible against the dark background of trees further behind, was the Napalm bomb that was just dropped. 1953 December.]]
[[File:French indochina napalm 1953-12 1.png|200px|thumb|center|French Napalm bomb exploded over Vietminh force.  1953 December. This image during the (French) [[Wikipedia:First Indochina War|First Indochina War]], conjuring up the horrific destruction of the Napalm on the human flesh,{{sfn|Tong|2018}} portended what was to come more than ten years later during the (American) [[Wikipedia:Second Indochina War|Second Indochina War]] with even more deadly advanced Napalm technology.]]
-->
On the French use of American-made napalm bombs, [[Wikipedia:Nguyen Ngoc Bich|Bich]] wrote
that the [[Wikipedia:Viet Minh|Viet Minh]] stopped following the advice of Chinese tacticians in launching large-scale mass attacks once many of their soldiers died by French napalm bombs.   They switched from the costlier manufacturing of arms to the less expensive  manufacturing of hand grenades, which can be used against light battalions to seize their arms.<ref name=Nguyen-Ngoc-Bich/>

== Publications ==
* {{citation |last=Nguyen-Ngoc-Bich |title=Vietnam—An Independent Viewpoint |journal=[[Wikipedia:The China Quarterly|The China Quarterly]] |volume=9 |date=March 1962 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/china-quarterly/article/abs/vietnaman-independent-viewpoint/91FC9BBCE8F39A365B303AC4118BEBC6 |url-access=subscription |access-date=18 Feb 2023}}, pp. 105–111.  See also the contents of [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/china-quarterly/volume/0FB8E56075A0E2649EB01EC2BFB9ABFB Volume 9], which included the articles of many experts on Vietnam history and politics such as [[Wikipedia:Bernard_B._Fall|Bernard B. Fall]], [[Wikipedia:Hoang_Van_Chi|Hoang Van Chi]], Phillipe Devillers (see, e.g., his classic 1952 book ''Histoire du Viet-Nam'' in Section [[#References|References]] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=French_Cochinchina&oldid=1203174341#cite_note-43 French French Cochinchina, Ref. 42]), [[Wikipedia:P._J._Honey|P. J. Honey]]<!--(see, e.g., his [https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/2300EAC28055ADB13CD8B21AF51F3BBE/S0305741000025340a.pdf/lenfer_communiste_au_nord_vietnam_by_gerard_tongas_paris_les_nouvelles_editions_debresse_1961_463_pp_18_new_francs.pdf review of Tongas' ''Enfer Communiste'']), William Kaye (see, e.g., [https://www.jstor.org/stable/651693 A Bowl of Rice Divided: The Economy of North Vietnam, 1962])-->,  Gérard Tongas (see, e.g, [https://www.abebooks.com/Jai-v%C3%A9cu-lEnfer-Communiste-Nord-Viet-Nam/31061452118/bd ''J'ai vécu dans l'Enfer Communiste au Nord Viet-Nam''], Debresse, Paris, 1961, [https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/2300EAC28055ADB13CD8B21AF51F3BBE/S0305741000025340a.pdf/lenfer_communiste_au_nord_vietnam_by_gerard_tongas_paris_les_nouvelles_editions_debresse_1961_463_pp_18_new_francs.pdf reviewed]] by [[Wikipedia:P._J._Honey|P. J. Honey]]), among others.

=== '''Summary of Bich's 1962 paper''' ===
In 1962, Dr. Bich laid out an argument to avoid the subversion war by North Vietnam to conquer rice from South Vietnam to solve its famine problem due to low yields in agricultural production using archaic methods and due to the failed agrarian reform.   His main points were (1) South Vietnam should have a truly liberal democratic government, (2) the South should establish commercial relations with the North to help solve the said famine problem, (3) the South should maintain a non-aligned neutrality that would prevent interference from the North, (4) the South would peacefully negotiate with the North toward a progressive reunification.  Below is a more detailed summary of his article, looking back from more than 60 years later.  As a result, past tense is used in this summary to describe long-past events, instead of the sometimes present tense used in the original article.<!--{{sfn|Nguyen-Ngoc-Chau|Vu-Quoc-Loc|2023}}--> The full article translated into French is available in the document <!--[[c:Nguyen Ngoc Bich (1911–1966): A biography|Nguyen Ngoc Bich (1911–1966): A biography]]-->''Nguyen Ngoc Bich (1911–1966): A Biography.''<sup>[[#NNC.VQL.2023 |N.bb2]]</sup><span id="NNC.VQL.2023 jump2">

==== Vietnam relations with China and USSR ====
{| role="presentation" class="wikitable mw-collapsible"
| <strong>Content</strong>
|-
| Contrary to the belief of the Western world (that the Vietnamese generally disliked, and had an inferiority complex against, the Chinese), the Vietnamese tended to be too proud of their history and victories against the Chinese and Mongol invaders over the centuries.

Aware of the Chinese historical "fierce expansionism", an important question for North and South Vietnam was how to safeguard the future of Vietnam as a whole country.

While South Vietnam tried to forcibly assimilate Chinese immigrants and their descendants, North Vietnam adopted a "more subtle attitude", moving from "fears" during the Chiang Kai-shek era  to "solidarity and friendship" after the communist had won in 1949.

The Geneva agreements, while satisfying for China, left the North Vietnamese to be content with the prospect of reunifying with South Vietnam upon an election.  After the failure of the agrarian reform, there was a concern of the presence of many Chinese soldiers and civilians in North Vietnam.   To keep Chinese economic aid flowing, Ho Chi Minh initially maintained a balance between Peking (Beijing) and Moscow, but subsequently tilted toward Moscow after Peking admitted that it could not help carry out a semi-heavy industrialization.  In September 1960, Le Duan, then Secretary-General of the Party, put forward a three-point program: (1) Support Moscow in any Sino-Soviet dispute, (2) Five-year plan (1961–1965) to  socialize North Vietnam, (3) Progressive and peaceful reunification of the two Vietnams.
|}
<!--
Contrary to the belief of the Western world (that the Vietnamese generally disliked, and had an inferiority complex against, the Chinese), the Vietnamese tended to be too proud of their history and victories against the Chinese and Mongol invaders over the centuries.

Aware of the Chinese historical "fierce expansionism", an important question for North and South Vietnam was how to safeguard the future of Vietnam as a whole country.

While South Vietnam tried to forcibly assimilate Chinese immigrants and their descendants, North Vietnam adopted a "more subtle attitude", moving from "fears" during the Chiang Kai-shek era  to "solidarity and friendship" after the communist had won in 1949.

The Geneva agreements, while satisfying for China, left the North Vietnamese to be content with the prospect of reunifying with South Vietnam upon an election.  After the failure of the agrarian reform, there was a concern of the presence of many Chinese soldiers and civilians in North Vietnam.   To keep Chinese economic aid flowing, Ho Chi Minh initially maintained a balance between Peking (Beijing) and Moscow, but subsequently tilted toward Moscow after Peking admitted that it could not help carry out a semi-heavy industrialization.  In September 1960, Le Duan, then Secretary-General of the Party, put forward a three-point program: (1) Support Moscow in any Sino-Soviet dispute, (2) Five-year plan (1961–1965) to  socialize North Vietnam, (3) Progressive and peaceful reunification of the two Vietnams.
-->

==== Le Duan: Reconquer the South ====
With the nomination of Le Duan—who led the struggle for independence in South Vietnam for a long time and knew the South more than anyone else—as First Secretary of the Party,  North Vietnam began to undertake the reconquest of the South, with the first step being to eliminate the Ngo Dinh Diem regime and the American influence in the South.  There were deeper motives.

==== Vietnamese Communist: Realism and pragmatism ====
"The most striking feature of the Vietnamese Communist leadership was its outstanding spirit of realism, even pragmatism."  They continuously and critically reexamined facts so that a lesson could be drawn for every action and every happening to avoid past mistakes.  By doing so, they tended to imitate or to repeat past actions that were proven successful, and lacked imagination and open-mindedness to create new solutions to tackle new challenges.

<!--
[[File:French_plane_dropped_napalm_bomb_on_Vietminh_force.png|550px|thumb|center|French plane pulling up after a dive to drop Napalm bombs on Vietminh force ambushing a French battalion. The white streak below the plane, clearly visible against the dark background of trees further behind, was the Napalm bomb that was just dropped. 1953 December.]]
[[File:French indochina napalm 1953-12 1.png|550px|thumb|center|French Napalm bomb exploded over Vietminh force.  1953 December. This image during the (French) [[First Indochina War]], conjuring up the horrific destruction of the Napalm on the human flesh,{{sfn|Tong|2018}} portended what was to come more than ten years later during the (American) [[Second Indochina War]] with even more deadly advanced Napalm technology.]]
-->
For example, they stopped following the advice of Chinese tacticians in launching large-scale mass attacks once many of their soldiers died by French napalm bombs.   They switched from the costlier manufacturing of arms to the less expensive  manufacturing of hand grenades, which can be used against light battalions to seize their arms.  They bred dogs, instead of pigs, as a source of meat since dogs produced two litters of young each year, while pigs produced only one. 

==== Rapid industrialization ====
A deeper motive to swing closer to Moscow was to develop a rapid industrialization to raise the standard of living to avoid complaints about dictatorship and restriction of freedom, and also the "dreaded spectre of becoming a mere satellite state". 

The targets of the Five-Year Plan were "extremely optimistic".  In the old French Indochina, "great leaps forward" in economics were achieved in some sectors, such as a 400% increase in plantation area, 150% increase in the number of workers in industrial establishments, in spite of World War I.   Now, there was an abundance of labor due to high unemployment.  The planned industrial projects could be completed if foreign aid maintained the same rhythm and agricultural production was adequate.

==== Agricultural production, risk of failure ====
It was doubtful, however, that the target of growing agricultural production by 61% over five years could be achieved due to low yields resulting from the archaic methods of cultivation, the old system of sub-letting land, the difficulty of cultivating new land, the discontent among the peasants, and the disastrous agrarian reforms and its consequence.  Hunger had become endemic, and China could not come to the rescue because of her own problems.  Rice had to be smuggled from the South to the North.

<!--[[File:Famine_in_Vietnam,_1945_(3).jpg|250px|thumb|right|The great Vietnamese famine 1944–1945.]]-->
The five-year plan ran a "grave risk of failure" due to lack of food to feed the people in North Vietnam, without an increase in rice supply from South Vietnam, not to mention other unpredictable factors such as floods, droughts, bad weather, etc. 

The success of the Five-Year Plan would be a primary condition to maintain some independence from Peking, which would exert a greater influence than from Moscow in the case of "necessary and inevitable war", and the North being a satellite of China "would constitute a most serious menace for the South, particularly in time of any major crisis".

==== Famine in the North, conquest of Southern rice ====
{| role="presentation" class="wikitable mw-collapsible"
| <b>Content</b>
|-
| [[File:Famine_in_Vietnam,_1945_(3).jpg|250px|thumb|right|The great Vietnamese famine 1944–1945.]] The reconquest of the South entrusted to Le Duan could then be understood as  "a struggle unleashed simply for the purpose of conquering rice", without which the five-year plan most certainly would fail.   For many Southerners, their reaction against the Diem regime, rather than the love for Communism, enabled this subversion war to continue. The enormous economic benefit that North Vietnam would harvest from the national reunification was the primary reason for the war.

North Vietnam was fighting to secure rice, and thus the war was, from the purely national point of view, a legitimate one.  Ngo Dinh Diem on the other hand refused to provide aid to alleviate the famine in the North.
|}

==== Liberal democracy and commercial relation between North and South ====
The Vietnamese people had for a long time a desire to have a liberal, truly democratic government. and had proven that in the end they would rise time and again to thwart the yoke imposed on them by any foreign power.

To avoid such internal war for rice from becoming a proxy war for Moscow, there should be a liberal regime in Saigon that allowed for establishing commercial relations with Hanoi and for a call to stop the fighting.  Moreover, a non-aligned political neutrality would prevent interference by North Vietnam in the affairs of South Vietnam.

==== Reunification through negotiation ====
A peaceful and progressive reunification of the two Vietnams could only be achieved through negotiation at a table, and not by arm struggle in the jungle.  The South would hope to live side by side peacefully with the North to collaborate in building the common Vietnamese nation, as the alternative would make "reunification" a propaganda that concealed the desire to conquer.

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

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<span id="Alliance transposition"></span>
* (↑ [[#Alliance transposition jump |N.atr]]) <i>Alliance transposition:</i> A surprising alliance transposition happened, with rightist resistance fighters turned to the Japanese (just like the French turned to the British), whereas the leftist resistance fighters turned to China and America (just like the French turned to the USSR)   ["On pent ainsi, et bien que de tels rapprochements soient très arbitraires, exprimer en termes européens la situation indochinoise : contre l'impérialisme présent (qui est ici la France), les « résistants » de droite (Caodaistes, Hoa Hao, Phuc Quoc, etc.) regardent vers le Japon (comme les nôtres vers les Anglo-Saxons), tandis que les « résistants » de gauche se tournent vers la Chine et l'Amérique, comme les nôtres le faisaient vers l'U.R.S.S. La transposition étonne, mais elle est, à notre avis, exacte."]<ref name=Devillers.1952/><sup>:99</sup>

<!--<sup>[[#American War casualties |N.awc]]</sup><span id="American War casualties jump"></span>-->
<span id="American War casualties"></span>
* (↑ [[#American War casualties jump |N.awc]]) <i>American War casualties:</i> The [[Wikipedia:Second Indochina War|Second Indochina War]] or the [[Wikipedia:Vietnam War|Vietnam War]], known as the "American War" in Vietnamese literature, led to a "staggering number of deaths, especially among Vietnamese (between three and four million Vietnamese lost their lives), and the utter destruction of much of the country of Vietnam and large portions of Laos and Cambodia."<ref name=Logevall.2001/><sup>:85</sup>  "In 1995 Vietnam released its official estimate of the number of people killed during the Vietnam War: as many as 2,000,000 civilians on both sides and some 1,100,000 North Vietnamese and Viet Cong fighters. The U.S. military has estimated that between 200,000 and 250,000 South Vietnamese soldiers died. The Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington, D.C., lists more than 58,300 names of members of the U.S. armed forces who were killed or went missing in action. Among other countries that fought for South Vietnam, South Korea had more than 4,000 dead, Thailand about 350, Australia more than 500, and New Zealand some three dozen."<ref name=Britannica.VWC/>

<!--<sup>[[#Point 4 Atlantic Charter |N.p4a]]</sup><span id="Point 4 Atlantic Charter jump"></span>-->
<span id="Point 4 Atlantic Charter"></span>
* (↑ [[#Point 4 Atlantic Charter jump |N.p4a]]) <i>Atlantic Charter, Point 4:</i>  "Fourth; they will endeavor, with due respect to their existing obligations, to further the enjoyment by all states, great or small, victor or vanquished, of access on equal terms, to the trade and to the raw materials of the world which are needed for their economic prosperity;"<sup>[[#Complete Atlantic Charter |N.cac2]]</sup><span id="Complete Atlantic Charter jump2"></span>

<!--<sup>[[#Bao Dai abdication|N.bda]]</sup><span id="Bao Dai abdication jump"></span>-->
<span id="Bao Dai abdication"></span>
* (↑ [[#Bao Dai abdication jump|N.bda]]) <i>Bao Dai abdication:</i> Under the pressure of the [[Wikipedia:Viet Minh|Viet Minh]],<!--{sfn|Patti|1980|pp=186-187}}--><ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:186-187</sup> [[Wikipedia:Bao Dai|Bao Dai]] had decided to abdicate on 1945 Aug 24,<!--{sfn|Patti|1980|pp=186-187}}--><ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:186-187</sup> composed the Imperial Rescript of abdication dated and signed on 1945 Aug 25,<ref name=Devillers.1952/><sup>:140</sup> and abdicated officially on 1945 Aug 30.<!--{{sfn|Patti|1980|p=220}}--><ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:220</sup> [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho Chi Minh]] then appointed "Mr. Nguyen Vinh Thuy"  ([[Wikipedia:Bao Dai|Bao Dai]]'s birth name) as "Supreme Counsellor"<!--{{sfn|Patti|1980|p=220}}--><ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:220</sup> of the Provisional Government of Vietnam.<!--{{sfn|Patti|1980|p=220}}--><ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:220</sup>  On 1945 Oct 22, Ho Chi Minh sent a letter to the US Secretary of State James F. Byrnes,<ref name="Ho to Byrnes.1945"/><sup>:2</sup> and attached the [[Wikipedia:c:File:1945 Aug 22 Bao Dai abdication p1.jpg|Imperial Rescript of Bao Dai's abdication]] together with [[Wikipedia:c:File:1945 Aug 22 Bao Dai abdication p2.jpg|Bao Dai's message to his royal clan about his abdication]], both of which were an English translation with no date, but with the recorded date as 1945 Aug 22 in the US National Archives and Records Administration (NARA).  The date of 1945 Aug 25 for the [[Wikipedia:c:File:1945 Aug 22 Bao Dai abdication p1.jpg|Imperial Rescript of Bao Dai's abdication]] and [[Wikipedia:c:File:1945 Aug 22 Bao Dai abdication p2.jpg|Bao Dai's message to his royal clan about his abdication]], as recorded by historian Devillers (1952)<ref name=Devillers.1952/><sup>:140</sup> is likely more reliable and correct.

<!--<sup>[[#Bao Dai quote|N.bdq]]</sup><span id="Bao Dai quote jump"></span>-->
<span id="Bao Dai quote"></span>
* (↑ [[#Bao Dai quote jump|N.bdq]]) <i>Bao Dai quote:</i> In the foreword by Devillers for Tønnesson's 2010 book ''Vietnam 1946''.<ref name=Tonnesson.2010/><sup>:xiii-xiv</sup><!--{{sfn|Tønnesson|2010|pp=xiii-xiv}}-->

<span id="NNBich-betrayed"></span>
* (↑ [[#NNBich-betrayed jump|N.bs]]) <i>Betrayal suspicion:</i> On the betrayal suspicion, Chester Cooper <!--{{citation |last=Cooper |first=Chester L. |year=1970 |title=The Lost Crusade: America in Vietnam |publisher=Dood, Mead & Company, New York  |url=https://archive.org/details/lostcrusadeameri00coop/page/n5/mode/2up |url-access=registration |access-date=7 Mar 2023}}, p.123,--> wrote in 1970:<ref name=Cooper.1970/><sup>:[https://archive.org/details/lostcrusadeameri00coop/page/122/mode/2up?q=%22Whether+the+Viet+Minh+had+actually+betrayed+him%22&view=theater 123]</sup> "Whether the [[Wikipedia:Viet Minh|Viet Minh]] had actually betrayed him to French agents is not known for certain, but [[Nguyen Ngoc Bich|Bich]] always suspected that this was how he had been discovered," whereas the assertion that [[Nguyen Ngoc Bich|Bich]] "was betrayed by his Communist colleagues to the French" was written in the short biography that accompanied [[Nguyen Ngoc Bich|Bich]]'s 1962 article, in  {{citation |editor=Honey, P.J. |title=Special Issue on Vietnam |journal=[[The China Quarterly]] |volume=9 |date=March 1962 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/china-quarterly/volume/0FB8E56075A0E2649EB01EC2BFB9ABFB |url-access=subscription |access-date=18 Feb 2023}}.  [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/china-quarterly/volume/0FB8E56075A0E2649EB01EC2BFB9ABFB Volume 9].  See the [[#China Quarterly|Note on ''The China Quarterly'']]<span id="China Quarterly jump2"></span>.
<!--:Back to [[#NNBich-betrayed jump|Note]].-->

<!--<sup>[[#NNC.VQL.2023 |N.bb]]</sup><span id="NNC.VQL.2023 jump"></span> -->
<span id="NNC.VQL.2023"></span>
* (↑ [[#NNC.VQL.2023 jump |N.bb]]) <i>Bich biography:</i> See primary sources and extensive quotations from secondary sources (history books and articles) in ''Nguyen Ngoc Bich (1911–1966): A Biography''.<ref name="NNC.VQL.2023"/><!--{{sfn|Nguyen-Ngoc-Chau|Vu-Quoc-Loc|2023}}--> 

<!--
<sup>[[#NNB-hero-2 |N.pbh]]</sup><span id="NNB-hero-2 jump"></span>
{{efn|name=fn-NNB-hero-2|
-->
<span id="NNB-hero-2"></span>
* (↑ [[#NNB-hero-2 jump|N.pbh]]) <i>Bich's head price:</i>  See [[Wikipedia:Joseph Buttinger|Joseph Buttinger]]'s book, Vol. 1<ref name=Buttinger.1967a/> <sup>[[#Buttinger-review |N.jbr3]]</sup><span id="Buttinger-review jump3"></span>

<span id="bich-injury"></span>
* (↑ [[#bich-injury jump1|N.bi1]], [[#bich-injury jump2|N.bi2]]) <i>Bich's injury:</i> A photo showing the injury mark on the forefront of Dr. Bich as a result of this "intensive and unpleasant interrogation" can be found in ''Nguyen Ngoc Bich (1911–1966): A Biography.''<ref name=NNC.VQL.2023/> 
<!--:Back to [[#bich-injury-jump|Note]].-->

<!--<sup>[[#Bich joined Viet Minh |N.bjvm]]</sup><span id="Bich joined Viet Minh jump"></span> -->
<span id="Bich joined Viet Minh"></span>
* (↑ [[#Bich joined Viet Minh jump |N.bjvm]]) <i>Bich joined Viet Minh:</i> See the quotation from a French doctoral thesis in  ''Nguyen Ngoc Bich (1911–1966): A Biography''.<ref name="NNC.VQL.2023"/><!--{{sfn|Nguyen-Ngoc-Chau|Vu-Quoc-Loc|2023}}-->

<span id="NNB street"></span>
* (↑ [[#NNB street jump |N.nnbs]]) <i>Bich street:</i> A street in Can Tho is named Nguyen Ngoc Bich to commemorate him blowing up the <!--{{plain link|url=https://www.google.com/maps/place/C%E1%BA%A7u+C%C3%A1i+R%C4%83ng,+Ninh+Ki%E1%BB%81u,+C%E1%BA%A7n+Th%C6%A1,+Vietnam/@10.0075615,105.7499666,17z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m6!3m5!1s0x31a089ba70b1c3b5:0xbddcccf9f6fadd75!8m2!3d10.0075615!4d105.7499666!16s%2Fg%2F1jkxqlp4t|name=Cai-Rang Bridge}}-->[https://www.google.com/maps/place/C%E1%BA%A7u+C%C3%A1i+R%C4%83ng,+Ninh+Ki%E1%BB%81u,+C%E1%BA%A7n+Th%C6%A1,+Vietnam/@10.0075615,105.7499666,17z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m6!3m5!1s0x31a089ba70b1c3b5:0xbddcccf9f6fadd75!8m2!3d10.0075615!4d105.7499666!16s%2Fg%2F1jkxqlp4t Cai-Rang Bridge] in this city to stop the French troops advance in 1945–46.<ref name="CTDN.2019"/> The short biography in Vietnamese, together with an English translation, in this street-naming plan is provided in the document ''Nguyen Ngoc Bich (1911–1966): A Biography,''<ref name=NNC.VQL.2023/>

<!--<sup>[[#Bich Viet Minh |N.bvm]]</sup><span id="Bich Viet Minh jump"></span> -->
<span id="Bich Viet Minh"></span>
* (↑ [[#Bich Viet Minh jump |N.bvm]]) <i>Bich Viet Minh:</i> That Bich joined the Viet Minh in 1945 was mentioned in a French PhD dissertation with page image provided in ''Nguyen Ngoc Bich (1911-1966): A Biography.''<ref name=NNC.VQL.2023/>

<!--
<sup>[[#Buttinger-review |N.jbr]]</sup><span id="Buttinger-review jump"></span>
{{efn|name=fn2-Buttinger-review|
-->
<span id="Buttinger-review"></span>
* (↑ [[#Buttinger-review jump1 |N.jbr1]], [[#Buttinger-review jump2 |N.jbr2]], [[#Buttinger-review jump3 |N.jbr3]]) <i>Buttinger review:</i> Osborne (1967), a Vietnam scholar, provided a critical review<ref name="Osborne.1967"/> of [[Wikipedia:Joseph Buttinger|Joseph Buttinger]]'s two-volume book.<ref name=Buttinger.1967a/><ref name=Buttinger.1967b/>  A recent [https://www.goodreads.com/en/book/show/7760244 summary] of [[Wikipedia:Joseph Buttinger|Joseph Buttinger]]'s book was provided by Stefania Dzhanamova on 2021 Aug 11 on Goodreads.

<!--<sup>[[#Cao Dai |N.cd]]</sup><span id="Cao Dai jump"></span> -->
<span id="Cao Dai"></span>
* (↑ [[#Cao Dai jump |N.cd]]) <i>Cao Dai:</i> "Appealing largely to the uneducated and essentially superstitious masses, the Cao Dai mushroomed in size to over five hundred thousand by 1930, giving the French authorities cause for concern. A schism took place in 1933 when Pham Cong Tac, one of the original founders, organized a secret sect known as Pham Mon to exploit political objectives. With the death of Pope Le Van Trung in 1936, Tac seized control of the temple at Tay Ninh and proclaimed himself 'interim Pope.' From this point on the Cao Dai split into several distinct sects but retained in all of them a rigid rightist political philosophy, conservative in nature and vehemently anticommunist and promonarchical."<ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:[https://archive.org/details/whyvietnamprelud0000patt/page/500/mode/2up?view=theater&q=%22rigid+rightist+political+philosophy%22 501]</sup> <ref name=Tonnesson.1991/><sup>:97</sup>
: At first, the French colonialists tolerated the Cao Dai, prefering religious sects over Communists, allowing it to be practiced in Cochinchina (south Vietnam), but not in Annam (central Vietnam) and Tonkin (north Vietnam).<ref name=Tonnesson.1991/><sup>:98</sup>  "In 1940-41, the French altitude changed in Cochinchina loo, since it was realized that the new religion had turned into a pro-Japanese force.<ref name=Buttinger.1967a/><sup>:[https://archive.org/details/vietnamdragonemb01butt/page/252/mode/2up?q=%22Cao+Dai%22&view=theater 252]</sup> Citing messages from above, Caodaist priests predicted the certain victory of the Axis."<ref name=Tonnesson.1991/><sup>:98</sup>  
: In the Spring of 1941, the Caodaistes found themselves in serious difficulty with the French administration, and sought help and protection from the Japanese, who were not in a position to provide.  As a result, the Caodaistes were crushed by the French, with Cao Dai leaders sent into exile.  By December of 1941, the "famed" ''Kempeitai,'' the Japanese political police modeled after the Gestapo, came to Indochina, and provided help and protection to the Caodaistes and other nationalist factions.<ref name=Devillers.1952/><sup>:89-90</sup> (In Devillers (1952)<ref name=Devillers.1952/><sup>:90</sup>, ''"Kempeitai"'' was translated into French as "Gendarmerie" and "police politique", whereas in Patti (1980)<ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:41</sup>, ''"kempeitai"'' was translated as "security police".)
: After the Japanese ''coup de force'' on 1945 Mar 9, being pro-Japanese,<ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:[https://archive.org/details/whyvietnamprelud0000patt/page/76/mode/2up?view=theater&q=%22rising+sun+armband%22 76]</sup> <ref name=Tonnesson.1991/><sup>:103,373</sup> the Cao Dai sect along with other pro-Japanese groups<sup>[[#Alliance transposition|N.atr]]</sup><span id="Alliance transposition jump"></span> in the United National Front (Mặt Trận Quốc Gia Thống Nhứt),<ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:[https://archive.org/details/whyvietnamprelud0000patt/page/524/mode/2up?view=theater&q=%22United+National+Front%22 524]</sup> established on 1945 Aug 14,<ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:[https://archive.org/details/whyvietnamprelud0000patt/page/554/mode/2up?view=theater&q=%22United+National+Front%22 554]</sup> were convinced by Tran Van Giau, a Viet Minh leader in Cochinchina---and later "a prominent Vietnamese historian who organized the 1945 revolution in Saigon and the whole of Cochinchina (Nam Ky)"<ref name=Tonnesson.1991/><sup>:21</sup>---that they all would be "outlawed"<ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:[https://archive.org/details/whyvietnamprelud0000patt/page/186/mode/2up?view=theater&q=%22outlawed%22 186]</sup> by the invading Allied, agreed to an alliance under the leadership of the Viet Minh.<ref name=Tonnesson.1985/> <ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:[https://archive.org/details/whyvietnamprelud0000patt/page/524/mode/2up?view=theater&q=%22United+National+Front%22 524]</sup>
: After the Japanese officially surrendered on 1945 Sep 2, the same day that Ho Chi Minh declared Vietnam Independence, General Leclerc (on 1945 Oct 5)<ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:[https://archive.org/details/whyvietnamprelud0000patt/page/454/mode/2up?view=theater&q=%22Leclerc%22 454]</sup> and the French 5th Régiment d'Infanterie Colonial (RIC,<ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:[https://archive.org/details/whyvietnamprelud0000patt/page/n15/mode/2up?view=theater&q=%22RIC%22 xv]</sup> Colonial Infantry Regiment, on 1945 Oct 3)<ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:[https://archive.org/details/whyvietnamprelud0000patt/page/454/mode/2up?view=theater&q=%22Leclerc%22 454]</sup> were brought back to Cochinchina with the help of the British. The advance units of British troops, the 20th Indian Division, and of the French 5th RIC were flown into Saigon on 1945 Sep 12.<ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:[https://archive.org/details/whyvietnamprelud0000patt/page/454/mode/2up?view=theater&q=%22Gracey%22 455]</sup>  
: "The contentious character of the nationalist movement in the south facilitated Leclerc's 'paciﬁcation campaign' at the end of 1945 and the beginning of 1946. He took on the armies of the Hoa Hao, the Cao Dai, and the Viet Minh one after the other. At ﬁrst, he seemed to score a resounding military success. Many Caodaists rallied to the French. By March, Leclerc estimated that his troops controlled, not just the cities, but also 80 percent of the villages. Politically, however, France had confronted and alienated much of the population, and when the Viet Minh reorganized its forces and started to cooperate more systematically with the religious sects, guerrilla activity resurfaced in most of the areas the French thought they had paciﬁed."<ref name=Tonnesson.2010/><sup>:74</sup> 
: On 1946 Apr 10, Nguyen Binh, the equivalent of Vo Nguyen Giap in the south,<ref name=Tonnesson.2010/><sup>:75</sup> formed the Unified National Front (Mặt Trận Quốc Gia Liên Hiệp, "Front National Unifié"),<ref name=Devillers.1952/><sup>:253</sup> composed of the Cao Dai and the same former pro-Japanese groups that were in the United National Front, established less than one year before on 1945 Aug 14, as mentioned above.
: The side switching of these groups prompted Ho Chi Minh to describe the pro-Japanese politicians as "weathercocks who were pro-French yesterday, pro-Jap today, and pro someone else tomorrow."<ref name=Tonnesson.1991/><sup>:105</sup>

<span id="Chester Cooper"></span>
* (↑ [[#Chester Cooper jump |N.clc]]) <i>Chester Cooper:</i> A summary of an obituary<ref name=Fox.2005/> for Chester L. Cooper is in the document ''Nguyen Ngoc Bich (1911–1966): A Biography''.<ref name=NNC.VQL.2023/>

<!--<sup>[[#Dr. Cooper |N.dcc]]</sup><span id="Dr. Cooper jump"></span>-->
<span id="Dr. Cooper"></span>
* (↑ [[#Dr. Cooper jump |N.dcc]]) <i>Cooper, PhD:</i> Chester L. Cooper undertook his doctoral study in urban land economics, and after an interruption due to WWII, received his PhD in 1960.<ref name=Colman.2012/>

<span id="China Quarterly"></span>
* (↑ [[#China Quarterly jump|N.tcq]]) <i>China Quarterly:</i> The [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/china-quarterly/article/editorial/5958FFC9348ED8A5B69E462E3B72B806 Editorial] of [[Wikipedia:The China Quarterly|The China Quarterly]], [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/china-quarterly/volume/0FB8E56075A0E2649EB01EC2BFB9ABFB Volume 9], reads: "Five of our articles are by specialists who have observed the Hanoi regime from a distance. M. Tongas and Mr. [[Wikipedia:Hoang_Van_Chi|Hoang Van Chi]] are writing on the basis of personal experience. Dr. Bich presents an independent view of the whole Vietnamese situation."  This China Quarterly issue contained the articles written by several well-known intellectuals on Vietnam history and politics such as [[Wikipedia:Bernard_B._Fall|Bernard B. Fall]], [[Wikipedia:Hoang_Van_Chi|Hoang Van Chi]], Phillipe Devillers (See [https://indomemoires.hypotheses.org/21651 Philippe Devillers (1920–2016), un secret nommé Viêt-Nam, Mémoires d'Indochine], [https://web.archive.org/web/20220629093316/https://indomemoires.hypotheses.org/21651 Internet archived 2022.06.29]), [[Wikipedia:P._J._Honey|P. J. Honey]], William Kaye (see e.g., [https://www.jstor.org/stable/651693 A Bowl of Rice Divided: The Economy of North Vietnam, 1962]),  Gerard Tongas, among others.  See the [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/china-quarterly/article/editorial/5958FFC9348ED8A5B69E462E3B72B806 Editorial] and the [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/china-quarterly/article/abs/contributors/DFA1B1B34B49325008EAB9EB582BF0DE brief introduction of the contributors].
<!--:Back to [[#China Quarterly jump|Note 1]], [[#China Quarterly jump2|Note 2]].-->
<!--:Back to [[#China Quarterly jump|Note 1]], [[#China Quarterly jump2|Note 2]].-->

<!--<sup>[[#Churchill, Atlantic Charter |N.chac]]</sup><span id="Churchill, Atlantic Charter jump"></span> -->
<span id="Churchill, Atlantic Charter"></span>
* (↑ [[#Churchill, Atlantic Charter jump |N.chac]]) <i>Churchill, Atlantic Charter:</i> "Both Churchill and many members of his Cabinet were alarmed by the third point of the Charter, which mentions the rights of all peoples to choose their own government. Churchill was concerned that this clause acknowledged the right of colonial subjects to agitate for decolonization, including those in Great Britain’s empire."  Churchill wanted to "bind the United States closer to Great Britain," warned his cabinet on 1941 Aug 11 "that it would be “imprudent” to raise unnecessary difficulties. The Cabinet followed Churchill’s recommendation and approved the Charter."<ref name="FRUS-Atlantic.1941"/><!--{{sfn|FRUS-Atlantic|1941}}-->

<!--<sup>[[#Cold February 1945 |N.cf45]]</sup><span id="Cold February 1945 jump"></span> -->
<span id="Cold February 1945"></span>
* (↑ [[#Cold February 1945 jump |N.cf45]]) <i>Cold February 1945:</i>   It has never been that cold. The temperature went down to four degrees Celcius at noon in Hanoi on 1945 Feb 13, Tết, new year day, Lunar year Ất-Dậu ("13-2-1945, Tết Nguyên Đán Ất-Dậu. Chưa bao giờ rét như thế này. Tại Hà Nội,  buổi trưa, hàn thử biểu xuống tới 4 độ"<ref name=Doan-Them.1965/><sup>:3</sup><!--{{sfn|Đoàn-Thêm|1965|p=3}}-->).

<!--<sup>[[#Complete Atlantic Charter |N.cac]]</sup><span id="Complete Atlantic Charter jump"></span> -->
<span id="Complete Atlantic Charter"></span>
* (↑ [[#Complete Atlantic Charter jump |N.cac]], [[#Complete Atlantic Charter jump2 |N.cac2]]) <i>Complete Atlantic Charter:</i> See the [https://www.fdrlibrary.org/atlantic-charter complete Atlantic Charter] from the [[FDR]] Presidential Library and Museum.

<!--<sup>[[#d'Argenlieu recall |N.dar]]</sup><span id="d'Argenlieu recall jump"></span> -->
<span id="d'Argenlieu recall"></span>
* (↑ [[#d'Argenlieu recall jump |N.dar]]) <i>D'Argenlieu recalled:</i> D'Argenlieu was recalled back to France because of the intense dislike that he caused among the Vietnamese and among the Socialists and Communists in France,<ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:[https://archive.org/details/whyvietnamprelud0000patt/page/394/mode/2up?view=theater&q=%22abomination+of+Viet+Nam%22 394]</sup> who gave him the nickname "The Bloody Monk,"<ref name=Logevall.2012/><sup>:[https://archive.org/details/embersofwarfallo0000loge/page/162/mode/2up?q=%22bloody+monk%22&view=theater 163]</sup> who was "widely believed to have sparked the war with his aggressive actions in 1946, in clear violation of the March 6 Accords [1946] and without informing Paris, [by recognizing] the autonomous 'Republic of Cochin China' in the name of France."<ref name=Logevall.2012/><sup>:[https://archive.org/details/embersofwarfallo0000loge/page/136/mode/2up?q=%22of+the+March+6+Accords%22%22&view=theater 137],[https://archive.org/details/embersofwarfallo0000loge/page/180/mode/2up?q=%22of+the+March+6+Accords%22%22&view=theater 180],[https://archive.org/details/embersofwarfallo0000loge/page/188/mode/2up?q=%22sparked+the+war+with+his+aggressive%22&view=theater 189]</sup>  Such recognition went against the stipulation of a referendum for the unification of the three regions ("Kỳ", i.e., Cochinchina, Annam, Tonkin) in the March 6 Accords.<sup>[[#March 6 Accords |N.m6a2]]</sup><span id="March 6 Accords jump2"></span> D'Argenlieu was also known as the "abomination of Vietnam,"<ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:[https://archive.org/details/whyvietnamprelud0000patt/page/394/mode/2up?view=theater&q=%22abomination+of+Viet+Nam%22 394]</sup> whom Bao Dai was averse to have any dealings with.

<span id="de Gaulle"></span>
* (↑ [[#de Gaulle jump1|N.cdg1]], [[#de Gaulle jump2|N.cdg2]]) <i>De Gaulle:</i> The permanent undersecretary at the British Foreign Office knew only that de Gaulle had a 'head like a pineapple and hips like a woman's', whereas the counselor at the US embassy in Paris and most of de Gaulle compatriots never heard of him.<ref name=Logevall.2012/><sup>:24</sup>  By Aug 1946, [[Wikipedia:de Gaulle|de Gaulle]] had resigned from the presidency of the French Provisional Government on 1946 Jan 20.<ref name="de Gaulle web"/>

<!--<sup>[[#de Gaulle dream |N.dgd]]</sup><span id="de Gaulle dream jump1"></span>-->
<span id="de Gaulle dream"></span>
* (↑ [[#de Gaulle dream jump |N.dgd]]) <i>De Gaulle's dream:</i> In 1940-41, in exchange for retaining control over Indochina and Thailand, both the French and the Thai agreed to let the Japanese Navy, Air Force, and Army use, for their military conquest, the harbors, air fields, and terrain in Indochina and Thailand.<ref name=Tonnesson.1991/><sup>:81</sup> Meanwhile, in exile in London, De Gaulle later wrote in his war memoirs: "À moi-même, menant une bien petite barque sur l'océan de la guerre, L'Indochine apparaissait alors comme un grand navire désemparé que je ne pourrais secourir avant d'avoir longuement réuni les moyens du sauvetage. Le voyant s'éloigner dans la brume, je me jurais à moi-même de le ramener un jour." Ch. de Gaulle, Mémoires de guerre, Tome I, L'appel. 1940-42. p. 137.<ref name=Tonnesson.1991/><sup>:81(n3)</sup>

<span id="Devillers ref"></span>
* (↑ [[#Devillers ref jump |N.pd]]) <i>(Philippe) Devillers:</i>  See <!--[[w:French_Cochinchina#cite_note-41|French Cochinchina, Ref. 40]]
--> [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=French_Cochinchina&oldid=1247806900#cite_note-43 French Cochinchina, version 03:16, 26 September 2024, Ref.42]: Philippe Devillers, ''Histoire du Viêt-Nam de 1940 à 1952'', Seuil, 1952, and [https://indomemoires.hypotheses.org/21651 Philippe Devillers (1920–2016), un secret nommé Viêt-Nam, Mémoires d'Indochine], [https://web.archive.org/web/20220629093316/https://indomemoires.hypotheses.org/21651 Internet archived 2022.06.29].

<!--<sup>[[#Devillers incorrect info |N.dii]]</sup><span id="Devillers incorrect info jump"></span>-->
<span id="Devillers incorrect info"></span>
* (↑ [[#Devillers incorrect info jump |N.dii]]) <i>Devillers incorrect info:</i> Devillers (1952) received incorrect information that Ho was in "Tsin Tsi" (Jingxi, Guangxi, China) as he wrote:<ref name=Devillers.1952/><sup>:97</sup><!--{{sfn|Devillers|1952|p=97}}--> "En mai 1941, il réussit à convoquer à Tsin Tsi dans le Kwang Si, à 100 km environ au Nord de Cao Bang, un 'Congrès' (In May 1941, he succeeded in calling for a plenum at Jingxi in the Guangxi province, about 100 km north of the Cao Bang province)."

<!--<sup>[[#Fenn helped Ho |N.fhh]]</sup><span id="Fenn helped Ho jump"></span> -->
<span id="Fenn helped Ho"></span>
* (↑ [[#Fenn helped Ho jump |N.fhh]]) <i>Fenn helped Ho:</i> [[Wikipedia:Office_of_Strategic_Services|OSS]] Lt. Charles Fenn helped "make Ho Chi Minh the undisputed leader of the Viet Minh in 1945".<ref name="Bartholomew-Feis.2006"/><sup>:[https://archive.org/details/osshochiminhunex0000bart/page/96/mode/2up?q=%22make+Ho+Chi+Minh+the%22&view=theater 96]</sup><!--{{sfn|Bartholomew-Feis|2006|p=96}}--> 

<span id="Francophile anticolonialists"></span>
* (↑ [[#Francophile anticolonialists jump1|N.fa1]], [[#Francophile anticolonialists jump2|N.fa2]]) <i>Francophile anticolonialists:</i> "French teachings and models over Confucian ones. Some of these teachings were, to say the least, unhelpful to the colonial enterprise.  Voltaire's condemnation of tyranny, Rousseau's embrace of popular sovereignty, and Victor Hugo's advocacy of liberty and defense of workers' uprisings turned some Vietnamese into that curious creature found also elsewhere in the empire: the Francophile anticolonialist."<ref name=Logevall.2012/><sup>:9</sup>
<!--: Back to [[#Francophile anticolonialists jump|Note]].-->

<!--<sup>[[#French War casualties |N.fwc]]</sup><span id="French War casualties jump"</span>-->
<span id="French War casualties"></span>
* (↑ [[#French War casualties jump |N.fwc]]) <i>French War casualties:</i> The [[Wikipedia:First Indochina War|First Indochina War]], known as the "French-American War" in Vietnamese literature, resulted in "500,000 on the side of the DRV ([[Wikipedia:Democratic Republic of Vietnam|Democratic Republic of Vietnam]]) and 100,000 for the French."<ref name=Tonnesson.2010/><sup>:261(n3)</sup>  See also detailed statistics and sources at [https://sites.tufts.edu/atrocityendings/2015/08/07/indochina-1st-indochina-war/ First Indochina War: Mass Atrocity Endings], Posted on August 7, 2015 by [https://sites.tufts.edu/atrocityendings/author/worldpeacefoundation/ World Peace Foundation]; [https://web.archive.org/web/20240606132735/https://sites.tufts.edu/atrocityendings/2015/08/07/indochina-1st-indochina-war/ Internet Archive 2024.06.06].

<span id="French-war cost"></span>
* (↑ [[#French-war cost jump|N.fwc]]) <i>French-war cost:</i> PBS ''US Involvement in Vietnam'' Video time 0:11 to 0:32:<ref name="PBS US involvement in Vietnam"/> "In 1952, General Dwight Eisenhower was elected President, in part because he promised to take a tougher stance on communism.  That year, American taxpayers were footing more than 30% of the bill for the French war in Vietnam (also called the "French-American" war<ref name="Lady.Borton.2020"/>).  Within two years, that number would rise to nearly 80%." To be more precise, the "U.S. aid to the French military effort mounted from $130 million in 1950 to $800 million in 1953."<ref name="Deconde.2002"/><sup>:597</sup> The "United States became France's largest patron, ultimately funding 78 percent of the French war effort in Indochina,"reported historian L.H.T. Nguyen based on the Vietnamese document "Tong ket cuoc khang chien chong thuc dan Phap," Hanoi: Chinh Tri Quoc Gia, 1996.<ref name="Lawrence.2007"/><sup>:46</sup>
<!--:Back to [[#French-war cost jump|Note]] [[#French-war cost jump|N.fwc]].-->

<span id="Hammer (1954)"></span>
* (↑ [[#Hammer (1954) jump |N.ehb]]) <i>Hammer (1954):</i>  [[Wikipedia:Ellen Hammer|Ellen Hammer]]'s 1954 book ''The Struggle for Indochina''<!--{{sfn|Hammer|1954}}--><ref name="Hammer.1954"/> was "A superb study of the French effort to hold on to Indochina."<ref name="Gettleman.1967"/>

<span id="Ellen Hammer"></span>
* (↑ [[#Ellen Hammer jump |N.ejh]]) <i>(Ellen J.) Hammer</i> received her PhD from Columbia University, where she specialized in international relations, with a dissertation on public law and government.<ref name=Pace.2001/> A summary of an obituary for Ellen J. Hammer is in the document ''Nguyen Ngoc Bich (1911–1966): A Biography''.<!--{{sfn|Nguyen-Ngoc-Chau|Vu-Quoc-Loc|2023}}--><ref name=NNC.VQL.2023/>

<!--<sup>[[#HCM quote1|N.hcm1]]</sup><span id="HCM quote1 jump"></span>-->
<span id="HCM quote1"></span>
* (↑ [[#HCM quote1 jump|N.hcm1]]) <i>HCM quote1:</i> From 1945 Aug 26 to 1980, when Patti published his book.<ref name=Patti.1980/><sup>:4</sup><!--{{sfn|Patti|1980|p=4}}-->

<!--<sup>[[#HCM and OSS |N.hos]]</sup><span id="HCM and OSS jump"></span>-->
<span id="HCM and OSS"></span>
* (↑ [[#HCM and OSS jump |N.hos]]) <i>HCM and OSS:</i> For the relationship between the OSS and Ho Chi Minh during WWII, see the article [[Wikipedia:OSS Deer Team|OSS Deer Team]] and the book <i>The OSS and Ho Chi Minh</i>.<ref name="Bartholomew-Feis.2006"/>

<!--<sup>[[#Ho admires Americans|N.haa]]</sup><span id="Ho admires Americans jump"></span>-->
<span id="Ho admires Americans"></span>
* (↑ [[#Ho admires Americans jump|N.haa]]) <i>Ho admires Americans:</i> As cited in Logevall (2012),<ref name=Logevall.2012/><sup>:[https://archive.org/details/embersofwarfallo0000loge/page/720/mode/2up?q=%22lifelong+admiration%22&view=theater 721]</sup><!--{{sfn|Logevall|2012|p=721}}--> Note 22, p. [https://archive.org/details/embersofwarfallo0000loge/page/720/mode/2up?q=%22lifelong+admiration%22&view=theater 721]: "Former New York Times Saigon correspondent A. J. Langguth, in his fine history of the American war, refers to Ho Chi Minh's 'lifelong admiration for Americans.' "<ref name=Langguth.2000/><sup>:55</sup> <!--Our Vietnam: The War, 1954-1975 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), 55.-->

<span id="Ho Atlantic Charter"></span>
* (↑ [[#Ho Atlantic Charter jump |N.hac]]) <i>Ho and Atlantic Charter:</i> In his letter to the US Chairman of Foreign Affairs Association, Ho referred to the Atlantic Charter several times, twice on [[Wikipedia:c:File:1945_Oct_22_Ho_Chi_Minh_letter_to_US_Chairman_Foreign_Affairs_Association_p1.jpg|Page 1]] alone: (1) " As a signatory power of the Atlantic and San-Francisco Charters, the United States of America have to be well informed on the real state of affairs", (2) "These principles of international justice and equality of status have been clearly expressed and solemnly proclaimed in point 3 and 4<sup>[[#Point 4 Atlantic Charter |N.p4a]]</sup><span id="Point 4 Atlantic Charter jump"></span> of the Atlantic Charter and subsequently reiterated in the San Francisco Charter".<ref name="Ho to Chairman Foreign Affairs.1945"/>

<!--<sup>[[#Ho communist nationalist|N.hcn]]</sup><span id="Ho communist nationalist jump"></span> -->
<span id="Ho communist nationalist"></span>
* (↑ [[#Ho communist nationalist jump|N.hcn]]) <i>Ho, communist or nationalist?</i> "For many decades there would be a heated debate among diplomats, politicians and political scientists in every corner of the world as to whether [[Ho Chi Minh]] was a communist or a nationalist. The answer is that he was both."<ref name=Tonnesson.1991/><sup>:120</sup><!--{{sfn|Tønnesson|1991|p=120}} -->

<!--<sup>[[#Ho gave pistols |N.hgp]]</sup><span id="Ho gave pistols jump"></span> -->
<span id="Ho gave pistols"></span>
* (↑ [[#Ho gave pistols jump |N.hgp]]) <i>Ho gave pistols:</i> That Ho gave the new pistols to his rivals, but not to his own people, testified to his political acumen in rallying his rivals to accept him as the top leader.<ref name="VQL.2023a"/><!--{{sfn|Vu Quoc Loc|2023a}}-->

<!--<sup>[[#Ho Tienpao prison |N.htp]]</sup><span id="Ho Tienpao prison jump"></span> -->
<span id="Ho Tienpao prison"></span>
* (↑ [[#Ho Tienpao prison jump |N.htp]]) <i>Ho in Tienpao prison:</i>  Tienpao in the [[Wikipedia:Wade-Giles|Wade-Giles]] transliteration is Tianbao in [[Wikipedia:pinyin|pinyin]].  See the analysis in ''Notes on Vietnam History.''<ref name=VQL.2023a/>

<!--<sup>[[#Ho in Vietnam 1944 |N.hvn]]</sup><span id="Ho in Vietnam 1944 jump"></span> -->
<span id="Ho in Vietnam 1944"></span>
* (↑ [[#Ho in Vietnam 1944 jump |N.hvn]]) <i>Ho in Vietnam 1944:</i>  A French report at that time stated: "more than 200 political refugees had passed from China to Tonkin, most of them armed with pistols and daggers (''poiguards''), and that among them was a certain 'Nguyen Hai Quoc', who had crossed the border under the name of 'Ho Chi Minh'. Nguyen Hai Quoc, a man 'around sixty years old', was 'the probable leader' of the Viet Minh: 'Under Nguyen Hai Quoc's leadership, the new elements coming from Kwangsi have undertaken to reawaken the movement and bring back to their former activities the implacables who had taken refuge in the mountains.' "<ref name="Tonnesson.1991"/><sup>:118, 208</sup><!--{{sfn|Tønnesson|1991|pp=118, 208}}--> 

<!--<sup>[[#Ho insight revolution | N.hir]]</sup><span id="Ho insight revolution jump"></span>-->
<span id="Ho insight revolution"></span>
* (↑ [[#Ho insight revolution jump | N.hir]]) <i>Ho's insight for revolution:</i> Ho was convinced that with the Japanese occupation of Indochina and "with international events moving fast and Decoux's government isolated from metropolitan France, the potential for revolution in Vietnam was much enhanced."<ref name=Logevall.2012/><!--{{sfn|Logevall|2012|p=34}}-->

<!--<sup>[[#Ho met OSS |N.hmo]]</sup><span id="Ho met OSS jump"></span> -->
<span id="Ho met OSS"></span>
* (↑ [[#Ho met OSS jump |N.hmo]]) <i>Ho met OSS:</i>  [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho]]'s "mission was probably to obtain information on the development of the war, try to gain Allied recognition for his league and perhaps also secure the [[Wikipedia:Viet Minh|Viet Minh]] a role in a forthcoming invasion".  At the same time, [[Wikipedia:vi:Hoàng_Quốc_Việt|Hoang Quoc Viet]] carried out a similar mission in Kwangsi (now [[Wikipedia:Guangxi|Guangxi]]) with the Chinese <!--{{lang-de|[[:de:Zhang_Fakui|Gen. Chang Fa-kwei]]}}-->[[Wikipedia:de:Zhang_Fakui|Gen. Chang Fa-kwei]], who told him that "I hope we shall soon meet again in Hanoi".<ref name="Tonnesson.1991"/><sup>:210</sup><!--{{sfn|Tønnesson|1991|p=210}}-->  See also the [https://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/V_F8F9FACD595E4A74BCA28655493A1743 PBS interview with Hoang Quoc Viet in 1981].

<!--<sup>[[#Lancaster book |N.dlb]]</sup><span id="Lancaster book jump"></span>-->
<span id="Lancaster book"></span>
* (↑ [[#Lancaster book jump |N.dlb]]) <i>Lancaster book:</i>  Donald Lancaster's 1961 book ''The Emancipation of French Indochina''<ref name=Lancaster.1961/> was "The best single book on the history of all Indochina to about 1955".<ref name="Gettleman.1967"/>

<!--<sup>[[#Leclerc accepted assignment|N.dgl]]</sup><span id="Leclerc accepted assignment jump"></span>-->
<span id="Leclerc accepted assignment"></span>
* (↑ [[#Leclerc accepted assignment jump |N.laa]]) <i>Leclerc accepted assignment:</i> Devillers (1952) wrote that Leclerc accepted his assignment on 1945 May 22 to command two French divisions placed under the general command of American forces in the Pacific ("Dès lors, c’est à obtenir la participation française à cet assaut que Paris voue ses efforts. Le 26 mai, le Gouvernement français offre à Washington de mettre à la disposition du Commandement américain dans le Pacifique un Corps d'Armée à deux divisions. Le general Leclerc, chef de la prestigieuse 2ème Division Blindée, le vainqueur de Koufra, de Paris, de Strasbourg et de Berchtesgaden, le plus connu et le plus populaire des chefs militaires français, a accepté le 22 mai d’en prendre le commandement.").

<!--<sup>[[#March 6 Accords |N.m6a]]</sup><span id="March 6 Accords jump"></span> -->
<span id="March 6 Accords"></span>
* (↑ [[#March 6 Accords jump1 |N.m6a1]], [[#March 6 Accords jump2 |N.m6a2]], [[#March 6 Accords jump3 |N.m6a3]]) <i>March 6 Accords:</i> Point 1 of the March 6 Accords stipulated that the French government recorgnized the Republic of Vietnam as a ''"Free state"'' within the French Union, and regarding Cochinchina, a referendum would be organized to unify the three regions of Vietnam, and the French government would ratify the decisions of the voting population ("Le Gouvernement français reconnait la République du Viêt-Nam comme un État libre ayant son governement, son parlement, son armée et ses finances, faisant partie de la Fédération Indochinoise et de l'Union Française.   En ce qui concerne la réunion des trois 'Ky', le gouvernement Français s'engage à entériner les décisions prises par la population consultée par référendum").<ref name=Devillers.1952/><sup>:225</sup> 

<span id="Minh Tan"></span>
* (↑ [[#Minh Tan jump|N.mbl]]) <i>Minh Tan book list:</i>  A list of important books published by Minh Tan can be found in [https://archive.org/details/nguyen-ngoc-bich-1911-1966-a-biography Nguyen Ngoc Bich (1911–1966): A Biography].
<!--: Back to [[#Minh Tan jump|Note]].-->

<span id="Napalm battles"></span>
* (↑ [[#Napalm battles jump|N.nb]]) <i>Napalm battles:</i> See, e.g., the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_V%C4%A9nh_Y%C3%AAn battle of Vinh Yen] (1951), the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_N%C3%A0_S%E1%BA%A3n battle of Na San] (1952), the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Dien_Bien_Phu battle of Dien Bien Phu] (1954), etc.
<!--:Back to [[#Napalm battles jump|Note]]. -->

<span id="Napalm girl"></span>
* (↑ [[#Napalm girl jump1 |N.ng1]], [[#Napalm girl jump2 |N.ng2]]) <i>Napalm girl:</i> A photo of the scars on the back and arm of Phan Thị Kim Phúc, the "napalm girl", is given in Stockton (2022).<ref name=Stockton.2022/>

<span id="NNC-VQL-more-details"></span>
* (↑ [[#NNC-VQL-more-details jump1 |N.bq1]], [[#NNC-VQL-more-details jump2 |N.bq2]]) <i>NNB quotations:</i>  See more detailed quotations in ''Nguyen Ngoc Bich (1911–1966): A Biography''<!--{{sfn|Nguyen-Ngoc-Chau|Vu-Quoc-Loc|2023}}--><ref name=NNC.VQL.2023/>

<!--<sup>[[#Nguyen Ai Quoc |N.naq]]</sup><span id="Nguyen Ai Quoc jump"></span> -->
<span id="Nguyen Ai Quoc"></span>
* (↑ [[#Nguyen Ai Quoc jump |N.naq]]) <i>Nguyen Ai Quoc:</i>  [[Wikipedia:vi:Hoàng_Quốc_Việt|Hoang Quoc Viet]] recounted in his [https://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/V_F8F9FACD595E4A74BCA28655493A1743 1981 interview with the PBS]: "I was sent to the southern part of the country at one point to discuss things with our comrades there. The discussion was very heated and it was very difficult to iron things out. Then I happened to mention the name Ho Chi Minh. These people in the south asked me who Ho Chi Minh was.  I told them that he was Nguyen Ai Quoc. They all stood up and clapped and said that as I was a representative sent by Ho Chi Minh then there was no need for any further discussion. This was because at that time there was a feud going on between the so called "Old Viet Minhs" and "New Viet Minhs". But when they heard from me that Ho Chi Minh was indeed Nguyen Ai Quoc, they were all overjoyed, saying that if Nguyen Ai Quoc had returned home to lead the movement then everything would be solved, that there should be unity and solidarity."

<!--<sup>[[#Notes on Vietnam history |N.vnh]]</sup><span id="Notes on Vietnam history jump"></span> -->
<span id="Notes on Vietnam history"></span>
* (↑ [[#Notes on Vietnam history jump |N.vnh]], [[#Notes on Vietnam history jump2 |N.vnh2]]) <i>Notes on Vietnam history:</i> See quotations in ''Notes on Vietnam history''.<ref name=VQL.2023a/><!--{{sfn|Vu Quoc Loc|2023a}}-->

<!--<sup>[[#Original writer |N.vql]]</sup><span id="Original writer jump"></span>
<span id="Original writer"></span>-->
<span id="Original writer"></span>
* (↑ [[#Original writer jump |N.vql]]) <i>Original creator and writer:</i>  [[wikiversity:User:Egm4313.s12|Prof. Loc Vu-Quoc]], vuquocloc@yahoo.com, [https://sites.google.com/site/locvuquoc1/ Publications], <!--{{Plain link|url=https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=xlH7V2QAAAAJ&view_op=list_works&is_public_preview=1|name=Google Scholar}}-->[https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=xlH7V2QAAAAJ&view_op=list_works&is_public_preview=1 Google Scholar].  Wikipedia [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Egm4313.s12 User:Egm4313.s12]..  Citizendium [https://en.citizendium.org/wiki/User:Loc_Vu-Quoc User:Loc Vu-Quoc].  See also [https://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Nguyen_Ngoc_Bich Nguyen Ngoc Bich] on [https://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Welcome_to_Citizendium Citizendium].

<span id="Political influence"></span>
* (↑ [[#Political influence jump|N.pi]]) <i>Political influence:</i>  A direct quote from the [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/china-quarterly/article/abs/contributors/DFA1B1B34B49325008EAB9EB582BF0DE brief introduction of the contributors] to [[The China Quarterly]], [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/china-quarterly/volume/0FB8E56075A0E2649EB01EC2BFB9ABFB Volume 9], 1962, reads: Dr. Bich's "personal influence upon Cochin Chinese opinion is considerable, and he is regarded by many as a possible successor to President Ngo Dinh Diem".
<!--:Back to [[#Political influence jump|Note]].-->

<!--<sup>[[#Power vacuum to August Revolution |N.pvar]]</sup><span id="Power vacuum to August Revolution jump"></span> -->
<span id="Power vacuum to August Revolution"></span>
* (↑ [[#Power vacuum to August Revolution jump |N.pvar]]) <i>Power vacuum to August Revolution:</i>  "In August and September 1945, the white-bearded Ho Chi Minh emerged as the winner of the Indochina game. ... He expected an Allied invasion and prepared himself for assisting the invading forces. Instead he got a power vacuum and a sudden Japanese surrender. This provided him with an occasion more favorable for bloodless revolution than he could ever have imagined. He then proclaimed the republic that would later defeat both France and the United States."<ref name="Tonnesson.2007"/><sup>:73</sup>

<span id="Primary sources, quotations"></span>
* (↑ [[#Primary sources, quotations jump1|N.psq1]], [[#Primary sources, quotations jump2|N.psq2]], [[#Primary sources, quotations jump3|N.psq3]]) <i>Primary sources, quotations:</i> See primary sources, extensive notes and quotations in ''Nguyen Ngoc Bich (1911–1966): A Biography''<ref name=NNC.VQL.2023/> and ''Notes on Vietnam History.''<ref name=VQL.2023a/>
<!--:Back to [[#Primary sources, quotations jump1|Note 1]], [[#Primary sources, quotations jump2|Note 2]].-->

<!--<sup>[[#Taberd Cochin China |N.tcc]]</sup><span id="Taberd Cochin China jump"></span> -->
<span id="Taberd Cochin China"></span>
* (↑ [[#Taberd Cochin China jump |N.tcc]]) <i>Taberd Cochin China:</i> [[Wikipedia:Jean-Louis Taberd|Jean-Louis Taberd]] was likely among the first to explain the meaning of "[[Wikipedia:Cochin China|Cochin China]]" in his 1837 scientific article; see quotation in ''Notes on Vietnam History''.<ref name="VQL.2023a"/><!--{{sfn|Vu Quoc Loc|2023a}}--> 

<!--<sup>[[#They in Atlantic Charter |N.tac]]</sup><span id="They in Atlantic Charter jump"></span> -->
<span id="They in Atlantic Charter"></span>
* (↑ [[#They in Atlantic Charter jump |N.tac]]) <i>"They" in Atlantic Charter:</i>  "They" here means [[FDR]] and [[Churchill]] and their respective governments.<ref name="FRUS-Atlantic.1941"/><!--{{sfn|FRUS-Atlantic|1941}}-->

<span id="Virginia Thompson"></span>
* (↑ [[#Virginia Thompson jump |N.vt]]) <i>(Virginia) Thompson</i> was the first British historian with a deep knowledge on French Indochina with her 1937 book ''[https://archive.org/details/FrenchIndoChina/page/n1/mode/2up French Indo-China]'' (Internet Archive), George Allen & Unwin LTD, London. Also see the review of this book: ''French Indo-China'' By Virginia Thompson (New York: Macmillan Company, 1937, pp.516, $5.00), [https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article-abstract/43/4/876/70968 reviewed by H.I. Priestley], The American Historical Review, Volume 43, Issue 4, July 1938, Pages 876–877, https://doi.org/10.1086/ahr/43.4.876

<!--<sup>[[#US invasion of Indochina |N.uii]]</sup><span id="US invasion of Indochina jump"></span> --> 
<span id="US invasion of Indochina"></span>
* (↑ [[#US invasion of Indochina jump |N.uii]]) <i>US invasion of Indochina:</i> The US was the only country among the Allies (British and Chinese) that could invade Indochina; see Chap. 4, Colliding Plans, in Tønnesson (1991).<ref name="Tonnesson.1991"/><sup>:156</sup><!--{{sfn|Tønnesson|1991|p=156}}--> 

<!--<sup>[[#US war plan |N.uwp]]</sup><span id="US war plan jump"></span> -->
<span id="US war plan"></span>
* (↑ [[#US war plan jump |N.uwp]]) <i>US war plan:</i>  "... to confuse the Japanese, possibly the French as well, concerning US intentions. Perhaps Roosevelt meant the plan seriously at first, and then changed it into a deceptive operation when he realized that it could not be carried out ... Indochina came to play a similar role in Roosevelt's war against Japan as Norway occupied in Churchill's war against Germany. For a long time, Churchill toyed with the idea of a Norwegian landing as a way of securing the transport route to Russia and bringing Sweden into the war. Then, when his generals and admirals adamantly refused to carry out the project, Norway instead became the focus of elaborate deception and diversion plans, aiming at inducing Hitler to keep as many troops as possible in an irrelevant theatre."<ref name="Tonnesson.1991"/><sup>:170, 220</sup><!--{{sfn|Tønnesson|1991|pp=170, 220}}--> 

<!--<sup>[[#Viet Minh manifesto |N.vmm]]</sup><span id="Viet Minh manifesto jump"></span> -->
<span id="Viet Minh manifesto"></span>
* (↑ [[#Viet Minh manifesto jump |N.vmm]]) <i>Viet Minh manifesto:</i>  "Union de toutes les couches sociales, de toutes les organisations révolutionnaires, de toutes les minorités ethniques. Alliance avec tous les autres peuples opprimés de l'Indochine. Collaboration avec tous les élements antifascistes français. Un but: la destruction du colonialisme et de l'impérialisme fascistes."<ref name="Devillers.1952"/><sup>:97</sup><!--{{sfn|Devillers|1952|p=97}}-->

<!--<sup>[[#Walking to Kunming |N.wtk]]</sup><span id="Walking to Kunming jump"></span> -->
<span id="Walking to Kunming"></span>
* (↑ [[#Walking to Kunming jump |N.wtk]]) <i>Walking to Kunming:</i> It takes about two weeks to walk from [[Wikipedia:vi:Pác_Bó|Pác Bó]] to [[Wikipedia:Kunming|Kunming]] using likely the same road (among several others) undertaken by the invading Mongols in the thirteen century.<ref name="VQL.2023b"/><!--{{sfn|Vu-Quoc-Loc|2023b}}-->

<!--<sup>[[#Year of the Pig|N.ytp]]</sup><span id="Year of the Pig jump"></span>-->
<span id="Year of the Pig"></span>
* (↑ [[#Year of the Pig jump1|N.ytp1]], [[#Year of the Pig jump2|N.ytp2]]) <i>Year of the Pig:</i> In his interview in the 1968 documentary ''[[Wikipedia:In the Year of the Pig|In the Year of the Pig]],'' at the [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0pibqRPi8Bo&t=13m56s Youtube video time 13:56]<!--{{plain link|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0pibqRPi8Bo&t=13m56s|name=Youtube video time 13:56}}-->, Paul Mus recounted: "[[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho Chi Minh]] said [in 1945]<!--{{bracket|in 1945}}-->, 'I have no army.' That's not true now [in 1968]<!--{{bracket|in 1968}}-->.  'I have no army.'  1945.  'I have no finance.  I have no diplomacy.  I have no public instruction.  I have just hatred and I will not disarm it until you give me confidence in you.'  Now this is the thing on which I would insist because it's still alive in his memory, as in mine. For every time [[Wikipedia:Ho Chi Minh|Ho Chi Minh]] has trusted us, we betrayed him."

== References ==
<!--{{Reflist|30em}}-->
<!--
<span style="background-color:yellow">NOTE: 24.5.17, Reference links are NOT the same as in Wikipedia. Be careful when copy the section References from Wikipedia so NOT to overwrite the changes for CZ.  ENDNOTE </span>
Patti 1980<ref name=Patti.1980/>
Paul Mus 1969<ref name="NYT Paul Mus obituary"/>
Brocheux 2007<ref name=Brocheux.2007/>
Devillers 1952<ref name=Devillers.1952/>
Doan-Them 1965<ref name=Doan-Them.1965/>
Tonnesson 2007<ref name="Tonnesson.2007"/>,
Tram-Huong 2003<ref name="Tram-Huong.2003"/>,
Buttinger 1967a<ref name=Buttinger.1967a/>,
Marr 1984<ref name=Marr.1984/>, 
Marr 1995<ref name=Marr.1995/>,

Ho 1945<ref name="Ho to Byrnes.1945"/>
Britannica<ref name=Britannica.VWC/>
-->
Marr 2013<ref name=Marr.2013/>,

<references>

<!-- NEW REFS NOT YET REORGANIZED ALPHABETICALLY -->

<!-- NEW REFS TO REORGANIZE ALPHABETICALLY -->

<ref name="CTDN.2019">
{{citation |date=9 Apr 2019 |title=Street-naming plan in Can Tho, Vietnam, with biographies, Appendix 1  |work=The Can Tho Daily News  |url=https://baocantho.com.vn/imagetsdt/files/2019/20190416/attachs/126_dup914_28_278_pl-i-quy-mo-duong-2019-09-04-2019.doc |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210223941/https://baocantho.com.vn/imagetsdt/files/2019/20190416/attachs/126_dup914_28_278_pl-i-quy-mo-duong-2019-09-04-2019.doc |access-date=15 Mar 2023 |archive-date=2023-02-10 |ref = {{harvid|CTDN|2019}}}}.  Internet archived 2023.02.10.
</ref>

<ref name="FRUS-Atlantic.1941">
{{citation |year=1941 |title=The Atlantic Conference & Charter, 1941
|publisher=Milestones in the History of U.S. Foreign Relations, 1937–1945, US Dept of State 
|work=Milestones in the History of U.S. Foreign Relations, 1937–1945  
|url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/atlantic-conf 
|access-date=21 Apr 2023 
|ref ={{harvid|FRUS-Atlantic|1941}}
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221115194149/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d151
|archive-date=2022-11-15
}}. 
<!--[https://web.archive.org/web/20221115194149/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v04/d151 Internet archived 2022.11.15].-->
</ref>

<ref name="Bartholomew-Feis.2006">
{{citation |last=Bartholomew-Feis |first=Dixee |year=2006 |title=The OSS and Ho Chi Minh: Unexpected Allies in the War against Japan |publisher=University Press of Arkansas, Lawrence, Kansas
|url=https://archive.org/details/osshochiminhunex0000bart
|url-access=registration 
|access-date=2024-05-23
}}.
</ref>

<ref name="Colman.2012">
{{citation |last=Colman | first=Jonathan |year=2012 |title=Lost crusader? Chester L. Cooper and the Vietnam War, 1963–68 |journal=[[Cold War History]] |volume=12 |number=3 |pages=429–449 | doi=10.1080/14682745.2011.573147 | s2cid=154769990 |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14682745.2011.573147 |url-access=subscription}}.
</ref>

<ref name=Brocheux.2007>
{{citation |last=Brocheux | first=Pierre |year=2007 |title=Ho Chi Minh: A Biography |publisher=translated by Claire Duiker, Cambridge University Press, New York
|url=https://archive.org/details/ho-chi-minh-a-biography-pdfdrive
|url-access=registration 
|access-date=2024-05-20
}}.
</ref>

<ref name="Britannica.VWC">
{{citation 
|title=How many people died in the Vietnam War? 
|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica 
|url=https://www.britannica.com/question/How-many-people-died-in-the-Vietnam-War 
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328065158/https://www.britannica.com/question/How-many-people-died-in-the-Vietnam-War
|archive-date=2023-03-28
|access-date=30 Mar 2023 
}}, 
Encyclopedia Britannica, [https://web.archive.org/web/20230328065158/https://www.britannica.com/question/How-many-people-died-in-the-Vietnam-War Internet Archive 2023.03.28].  
<!--
|ref={{harvid|Encyclopedia Britannica, Vietnam-War casualties}}
[https://web.archive.org/web/20230328065158/https://www.britannica.com/question/How-many-people-died-in-the-Vietnam-War Internet archived on 2023.03.28].
-->
</ref>

<ref name=Buttinger.1967a>
{{citation |last=[[Joseph Buttinger|Buttinger]] |first=Joseph |year=1967a |title=Vietnam: A Dragon Embattled, Vol.1  |publisher=Frederik A. Praegers, New York  |url=https://archive.org/details/vietnamdragonemb01butt/page/n5/mode/2up |url-access=registration |access-date=25 Feb 2023}}
</ref>

<ref name=Buttinger.1967b>
{{citation |last=[[Joseph Buttinger|Buttinger]] |first=Joseph |year=1967b |title=Vietnam: A Dragon Embattled, Vol.2  |publisher=Frederik A. Praegers, New York  |url=https://archive.org/details/vietnamdragonemb02butt/page/n5/mode/2up |url-access=registration |access-date=25 Feb 2023}}
</ref>

<ref name=Caffery.1945>
{{citation |last=Caffery |first=Jefferson |title=The Ambassador in France (Caffery) to the Secretary of State |date=1945-03-13 |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v06/d175 }}, [https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945v06 Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS): Diplomatic Papers, 1945, The British Commonwealth, The Far East, Volume VI]. ([[Edward Stettinius Jr.]] was the Secretary of State on 1945 Mar 13.)
</ref>

<ref name=Cooper.1970>
<!--Cooper, 1970, p=122.-->
{{citation |last=Cooper |first=Chester L. |year=1970 |title=The Lost Crusade: America in Vietnam |publisher=Dood, Mead & Company, New York  
|url=https://archive.org/details/lostcrusadeameri00coop/page/n5/mode/2up 
|url-access=registration 
|access-date=7 Mar 2023}}
</ref>

<ref name="de Gaulle web">
{{citation |title=Charles de Gaulle (1959-1969) |series= Former Presidents of the Republic |url=https://www.elysee.fr/en/charles-de-gaulle |website=www.elysee.fr |date= 15 November 2018 |access-date=13 Jun 2023 |ref = {{harvid|de Gaulle web}} }}.  [https://web.archive.org/web/20230328183641/https://www.elysee.fr/en/charles-de-gaulle Internet archived on 2023.03.28].
</ref>

<ref name="Deconde.2002">
{{citation 
|editor-last1 = DeConde |editor-first1 = A. 
|editor-last2 = Burns |editor-first2 = R.D.
|editor-last3 = Logevall |editor-first3 = F.
|year=2002 
|title=Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy |volume=3 
|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofam03deco/page/n5/mode/2up?view=theater
|access-date=2024-05-11
|publisher=Charles Scribner's & Sons
}}.
</ref>

<ref name=Devillers.1952>
{{citation |last=Devillers |first=Philippe |year=1952 |title=Histoire du Viêt-Nam de 1940 à 1952 |publisher=Seuil, Paris.}} See also [https://indomemoires.hypotheses.org/21651 Philippe Devillers (1920–2016), un secret nommé Viêt-Nam, Mémoires d'Indochine], [https://web.archive.org/web/20220629093316/https://indomemoires.hypotheses.org/21651 Internet archived 2022.06.29]. Patti (1980), p.542, wrote about Devillers (1952): "The most accurate French account of the period; barring several omissions and minor inaccuracies generally attributable to his sources and to the lack of American documentation, it is by far one of the more reliable histories."
</ref>

<ref name=Doan-Them.1965>
{{citation |last=Đoàn-Thêm|year=1965 |title=Hai Mươi Năm Qua: Việc Từng Ngày, (1945-1964) <!--{{bracket|The Last Twenty Years: Daily Events (1945-1964)}}-->(The Last Twenty Years: Daily Events (1945-1964)) |publisher=Xuân Thu (1986?), Los Alamitos, California}}.  <!--{{plain link|url=https://issuu.com/vietnamthuvien/docs/haimuoinamqua_1945-1964_viectungnga|name=Issuu}}-->[https://issuu.com/vietnamthuvien/docs/haimuoinamqua_1945-1964_viectungnga Issuu] (read only, cannot search). [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/ssd?id=mdp.39015039530707&seq=23 HathiTrust Digital Library] <!--{{plain link|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/ssd?id=mdp.39015039530707&seq=23|name=HathiTrust Digital Library}}--> (search only, cannot read).
</ref>

<ref name=Fall.1966>
{{citation 
|last=Fall |first=Bernard B.
|title=The Two Viet-Nams: A political and military analysis
|year=1966
|publisher=Frederick A. Praeger, New York
|url=https://archive.org/details/twovietnams0000unse/page/n7/mode/2up
|url-access=registration |access-date=4 Oct 2024
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Fenn.1973">
{{citation |last=Fenn |first=Charles |year=1973 |title=Ho Chi Minh: A Biographical Introduction |publisher=Studio Vista, London 
|url=https://archive.org/details/hochiminhbiograp0000fenn/page/n3/mode/2up?view=theater 
|url-access=registration 
|access-date=2023-12-27
}}.
</ref>

<ref name="Fox.2005">
{{citation |last=Fox | first=Margalit |year=2005 |title=Chester Cooper, 88, a Player in Diplomacy for Two Decades, Is Dead |work=[[The New York Times]]  |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/07/obituaries/chester-cooper-88-a-player-in-diplomacy-for-two-decades-is-dead.html |url-access=subscription}}, Nov 7.
</ref>

<ref name="Gettleman.1967">
{{citation |last=Gettleman | first=Marvin E. |year=1967 |title=A Vietnam Bibliography |url=https://cdn.mises.org/Left%20and%20Right_3_3_7_0.pdf?token=p777VAHo}}, Assistant Professor of History, Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, with the assistance of Sanford L. Silverman, Liberal Arts Bibliographer. The Libraries, Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, Oct 19. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220101025921/https://cdn.mises.org/Left%20and%20Right_3_3_7_0.pdf?token=p777VAHo Internet archived 2022.01.01]
</ref>

<ref name="Giniger.1984">
{{citation |last=Giniger | first=Henry |year=1984 |title=America Inside Out, Close to Events, book review |work=[[The New York Times]] 
|date=1984-10-14 
|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/10/14/books/close-to-events.html |url-access=subscription
}}.
</ref>

<ref name="Gunn.2013">
{{citation 
|last=Gunn 
|first=Geoffrey C. 
|title=Prelude to the First Indochina War: New Light on the Fontainebleau Conference of July-September 1946 and Aftermath 
|journal=Southeast Asian Studies Annual Report
|volume=54
|pages=19-51
|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/58759811.pdf 
|date=2013-03-25 
}}.
</ref>

<ref name="Hammer.1954">
{{citation |last=Hammer |first=Ellen J. |year=1954 |title=The Struggle for Indochina |publisher=Stanford University Press, Stanford, California  |url=https://archive.org/details/struggleforindoc0000hamm_h0h0/page/n6/mode/2up |url-access=registration |access-date=11 Mar 2023}}.
</ref>

<ref name="Ho to Chairman Foreign Affairs.1945">
{{citation 
|last=Ho-Chi-Minh  
|title=Letter to US Chairman of Foreign Affairs Association 
|url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1945_Oct_22_Ho_Chi_Minh_letter_to_US_Chairman_Foreign_Affairs_Association_p1.jpg 
|date=1945-10-22 
}}. [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1945_Oct_22_Ho_Chi_Minh_letter_to_US_Chairman_Foreign_Affairs_Association_p1.jpg Page 1], [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1945_Oct_22_Ho_Chi_Minh_letter_to_US_Chairman_Foreign_Affairs_Association_p2.jpg Page 2], [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1945_Oct_22_Ho_Chi_Minh_letter_to_US_Chairman_Foreign_Affairs_Association_p3.jpg Page 3], [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1945_Oct_22_Ho_Chi_Minh_letter_to_US_Chairman_Foreign_Affairs_Association_p4.jpg Page 4].
</ref>

<ref name="Ho to Byrnes.1945">
{{citation 
|last=Ho-Chi-Minh  
|title=Letter to US Secretary of State James F. Byrnes 
|url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1945_Oct_22_Ho_Chi_Minh_letter_to_US_Secretary_of_State_Byrnes_p1.jpg 
|date=1945-10-22 
}}. [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1945_Oct_22_Ho_Chi_Minh_letter_to_US_Secretary_of_State_Byrnes_p1.jpg Page 1], [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1945_Oct_22_Ho_Chi_Minh_letter_to_US_Secretary_of_State_p2.jpg Page 2], [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1945_Oct_22_Ho_Chi_Minh_letter_to_US_Secretary_of_State_p3.jpg Page 3].
</ref>

<ref name=Honey.1962>
{{citation |editor=Honey, P.J. |title=Special Issue on Vietnam |journal=[[The China Quarterly]] |volume=9 |date=March 1962 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/china-quarterly/volume/0FB8E56075A0E2649EB01EC2BFB9ABFB |url-access=subscription |access-date=18 Feb 2023}}.  
</ref>

<ref name="Lady.Borton.2020">
{{citation |last=Lady Borton |year=2020 |title=WE NEVER KNEW: Napalm use during Vietnam's French-American War 
|url=https://vietnamnet.vn/en/we-never-knewnapalm-use-during-vietnams-french-american-war-638460.html
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220907175453/https://vietnamnet.vn/en/we-never-knewnapalm-use-during-vietnams-french-american-war-638460.html
|archive-date=2022-09-07
}}, [https://vietnamnet.vn/ vietnamnet.vn], May 5. Also [https://archive.is/6csXE archive.is 2024.10.19].
<!--
[https://web.archive.org/web/20220907175453/https://vietnamnet.vn/en/we-never-knewnapalm-use-during-vietnams-french-american-war-638460.html Internet archived on 2022.09.07].
-->
</ref>

<ref name="Lambert.1992">
{{citation |last=Lambert | first=Bruce |year=1992 |title=Joseph A. Buttinger, Nazi Fighter And Vietnam Scholar, Dies at 85 |work=[[The New York Times]]  |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/03/08/nyregion/joseph-a-buttinger-nazi-fighter-and-vietnam-scholar-dies-at-85.html |url-access=subscription}}, Mar 8.
</ref>

<ref name=Lancaster.1961>
{{citation |last=Lancaster |first=Donald |year=1961 |title=The Emancipation of French Indochina |publisher=Royal Institute of International Affairs, Oxford University Press, New York; reprinted by Octagon Books, New York, 1975  |url=https://archive.org/details/emancipationoffr0000lanc/page/n5/mode/2up |url-access=registration |access-date=11 Mar 2023}}
</ref>

<ref name=Langguth.2000>
{{citation |last=[[A.J. Langguth|Langguth]] |first=Arthur John |year=2000 |title=Our Vietnam: The war, 1954–1975 |publisher=Simon & Schuster, New York  |url=https://archive.org/details/ourvietnam00ajla |url-access=registration |access-date=14 Mar 2023}}
</ref>

<ref name="Lawrence.2007">
{{citation 
|editor-last1 = Lawrence 
|editor-first1 = Mark A. 
|editor-last2 = Logevall 
|editor-first2 = Fredrik 
|year=2007 
|title=The First Vietnam War: Colonial Conflict and the Cold War |publisher=Harvard University Press, Massachusetts 
}},
edited by M.A. Lawrence and F. Logevall.
</ref>

<ref name=Logevall.2001>
{{citation 
|last=Logevall 
|first=Fredrik 
|year=2001 
|title=The Origins of the Vietnam War 
|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_2900582319188_w1j4/mode/2up?view=theater 
|url-access=registration 
|access-date=2024-07-21 
|publisher=Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, New York.
}}
</ref>

<ref name=Logevall.2012>
{{citation 
|last=Logevall 
|first=Fredrik 
|year=2012 
|title=Embers of War: The Fall of an Empire and the Making of America's Vietnam |url=https://archive.org/details/embersofwarfallo0000loge 
|url-access=registration 
|access-date=12 Apr 2012 
|publisher=Random House, New York
}}, 864 pp. Winner of the [https://www.pulitzer.org/winners/fredrik-logevall 2013 Pulitzer Prize in History]: "''For a distinguished and appropriately documented book on the history of the United States, Ten thousand dollars ($10,000).''  A balanced, deeply researched history of how, as French colonial rule faltered, a succession of American leaders moved step by step down a road toward full-blown war"  • Winner of the [https://sah.columbia.edu/content/prizes/francis-parkman-prize/2013-fredrik-logevall-embers-war-fall-empire-and-making 2013 Francis Parkman Prize from the Society of American Historians] • Winner of the [https://americanlibraryinparis.org/fredrik-logevall-reflects-on-vietnam-different-dreams-same-footsteps/ 2013 American Library in Paris Book Award] • Winner of the Council on Foreign Relations [https://www.cfr.org/past-winners-arthur-ross-book-award 2013 Gold Medal] [https://www.cfr.org/arthur-ross-book-award Arthur Ross Book Award] • Finalist for the [https://www.cundillprize.com/winners/2013 2013 Cundill Prize in Historical Literature].
</ref>

<ref name=Marr.1984>
{{citation |last=Marr | first=David G. |year=1984 |title=Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, 1920-1945 |publisher=University of California Press, Berkeley |url=https://archive.org/details/vietnamesetradit0000marr |url-access=registration |access-date=2024-05-05}}.
</ref>

<ref name=Marr.1995>
{{citation 
|last=Marr 
| first=David G. 
|year=1995 
|title=Vietnam 1945: The Quest for Power 
|publisher=University of California Press, Berkeley 
|url=https://archive.org/details/vietnam1945quest0000marr/mode/2up?view=theater 
|url-access=registration 
|access-date=2024-07-05}}.
</ref>

<ref name=Marr.2013>
{{citation |last=Marr | first=David G. |year=2013 |title=Vietnam: State, War, and Revolution (1945-1946) |publisher=University of California Press, Berkeley.}}
</ref>

<ref name=Nguyen-Ngoc-Bich>
{{citation |last=Nguyen-Ngoc-Bich |title=Vietnam—An Independent Viewpoint |journal=[[The China Quarterly]] |volume=9 |date=March 1962 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/china-quarterly/article/abs/vietnaman-independent-viewpoint/91FC9BBCE8F39A365B303AC4118BEBC6 |url-access=subscription |access-date=18 Feb 2023}}, pp. 105–111.  See also the contents of [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/china-quarterly/volume/0FB8E56075A0E2649EB01EC2BFB9ABFB Volume 9], which included the articles of many well-known experts on Vietnam history and politics such as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_B._Fall Bernard B. Fall], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoang_Van_Chi Hoang Van Chi], Phillipe Devillers (see, e.g., his classic 1952 book ''Histoire du Viet-Nam'' in Section [[#References|References]] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=French_Cochinchina&oldid=1224819233#cite_ref-43 French Cochinchina, Ref. 42]), [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._J._Honey P. J. Honey]<!--(see, e.g., his [https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/2300EAC28055ADB13CD8B21AF51F3BBE/S0305741000025340a.pdf/lenfer_communiste_au_nord_vietnam_by_gerard_tongas_paris_les_nouvelles_editions_debresse_1961_463_pp_18_new_francs.pdf review of Tongas' ''Enfer Communiste'']), William Kaye (see, e.g., [https://www.jstor.org/stable/651693 A Bowl of Rice Divided: The Economy of North Vietnam, 1962])-->,  Gerard Tongas (see, e.g, [https://www.abebooks.com/Jai-v%C3%A9cu-lEnfer-Communiste-Nord-Viet-Nam/31061452118/bd ''J'ai vécu dans l'Enfer Communiste au Nord Viet-Nam''], Debresse, Paris, 1961, [https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/2300EAC28055ADB13CD8B21AF51F3BBE/S0305741000025340a.pdf/lenfer_communiste_au_nord_vietnam_by_gerard_tongas_paris_les_nouvelles_editions_debresse_1961_463_pp_18_new_francs.pdf reviewed]] by [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._J._Honey P. J. Honey]), among others.
</ref>

<ref name=NNC.2018>
{{citation |last=Nguyen-Ngoc-Chau |year=2018 |title=Le Temps des Ancêtres: Une famille vietnamienne dans sa traversée du XXe siècle |publisher=L'Harmattan, Paris, France |url=https://www.editions-harmattan.fr/livre-le_temps_des_ancetres_une_famille_vietnamienne_dans_sa_traversee_du_xxe_siecle_chau_nguyen_ngoc-9782343140834-58952.html |access-date=18 Feb 2023}}.  Preface by historian Pierre Brocheux.
</ref>

<ref name="NNC.2021">
{{citation |last=Nguyen-Ngoc-Chau |title=The basic truths on Caodaism |url=https://www.academia.edu/44590508 |date=20 Jul 2021 |publisher=education.edu}}.
</ref>

<ref name=NNC.VQL.2023>
{{citation |last1=Nguyen-Ngoc-Chau |last2=Vu-Quoc-Loc |year=2023 |title=Nguyen Ngoc Bich (1911–1966): A Biography |url=https://archive.org/details/nguyen-ngoc-bich-1911-1966-a-biography |publisher=Internet Archive |access-date=21 Mar 2023}}, [[CC-BY-SA 4.0]]. ([https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Le5jRNs4Ib0FYTZkBdG2tlpAo0jH6q52/view?usp=share_link Backup copy].) Much of the information in the present article came from this biography, which also contains many relevant and informative photos not displayed here.
</ref>

<ref name="NYT Paul Mus obituary">
{{citation |title=Dr. Paul Mus dies; a Yale professor. Southeast Asia authority also taught in France |journal=New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1969/08/16/archives/dr-paul-mus-dies-a-yale-professor-southeast-asia-authority-also.html |date=16 August 1969 |ref={{harvid|NYT Paul Mus obituary}}}}.
</ref>

<ref name="Osborne.1967">
{{citation |last=Osborne |first=Milton |year=1967 |title=Viet-Nam: The Search for Absolutes |journal=International Journal | volume=22 |number=4 |series=Fifty Years of Bolshevism (Autumn, 1967) |pages=647–654 |doi=10.2307/40200203 |jstor=40200203 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40200203 |access-date=18 Feb 2023}}.
</ref>

<ref name=Pace.2001>
{{citation |last=Pace | first=Eric |year=2001 |title=Ellen Hammer, 79; Historian Wrote on French in Indochina |work=[[The New York Times]]  |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/26/world/ellen-hammer-79-historian-wrote-on-french-in-indochina.html |url-access=subscription}}, Mar 26.
</ref>

<ref name=Patti.1980>
{{citation |last=Patti |first=Archimedes |year=1980 |title=Why Viet Nam? Prelude to America's Albatross |url=https://archive.org/details/whyvietnamprelud0000patt/mode/2up?view=theater |publisher=University of California Press | location = Berkeley |isbn = 978-0520047839}}
</ref>

<ref name=Patti.1981>
{{citation |title=Vietnam: A Television History; Roots of a War; Interview with Archimedes L. A. Patti, 1981 |date=1981-04-01 |url=https://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/V_3267C58E4C104A54A0AFDF230D618AE6}}
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== External links ==
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nguyen_Ngoc_Bich Nguyen Ngoc Bich] originally created and written by [[User:Loc Vu-Quoc|Loc Vu-Quoc]] (i.e., [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Egm4313.s12 User:Egm4313.s12]) on Wikipedia, where anonymous users can edit.