Physics: Difference between revisions

From Citizendium
Jump to navigation Jump to search
imported>Fred Salsbury
(sections)
imported>Fred Salsbury
(→‎History: too long! refer for now to article on history)
Line 68: Line 68:
Roughly speaking, theorists seek to develop theories, through mathematical and computational models, that can both describe and interpret existing experimental results and successfully predict future results, while experimentalists devise and perform experiments to explore new phenomena and test theoretical predictions. Although theory and experiment can be developed separately, they are strongly dependent on each other. Progress in physics frequently comes about when experimentalists make a discovery that existing theories cannot account for, necessitating the formulation of new theories, or when theorists make predictions that experimentalists test.
Roughly speaking, theorists seek to develop theories, through mathematical and computational models, that can both describe and interpret existing experimental results and successfully predict future results, while experimentalists devise and perform experiments to explore new phenomena and test theoretical predictions. Although theory and experiment can be developed separately, they are strongly dependent on each other. Progress in physics frequently comes about when experimentalists make a discovery that existing theories cannot account for, necessitating the formulation of new theories, or when theorists make predictions that experimentalists test.


== History ==
{{main | History of physics}}


{{further | [[Famous physicists]], [[Nobel Prize in physics]]}}
[[Image:Francesco Hayez 001.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Aristotle]]]]
Since antiquity, people have tried to understand the behavior of [[matter]]: why unsupported objects drop to the ground, why different [[materials science | materials]] have different properties, and so forth. The character of the [[Universe]] was also a mystery, for instance the [[Earth]] and the behavior of celestial objects such as the [[Sun]] and the [[Moon]]. Several theories were proposed, most of which were wrong. These first theories were largely couched in [[philosophy | philosophical]] terms, and never verified by systematic experimental testing as is popular today. The works of [[Ptolemy]] and [[Physics (Aristotle) | Aristotle]], however, were also not always found to match everyday observations. There were exceptions and there are [[anachronism]]s - for example, [[Indian philosophy | Indian philosophers]] and [[Indian science and technology#Astronomy | astronomers]] gave many correct descriptions in [[atomism]] and [[astronomy]], and the [[Ancient Greece | Greek]] thinker [[Archimedes]] derived many correct quantitative descriptions of [[mechanics]] and [[hydrostatics]].
The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers eventually resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the [[Scientific Revolution]] of the late [[17th century]]. The precursors to the scientific revolution can be traced back to the important developments made in [[India]] and [[Persia]], including the [[ellipse | elliptical]] model of the planets based on the [[heliocentrism | heliocentric]] [[solar system]] of [[gravitation]] developed by [[Indian mathematics | Indian mathematician]]-astronomer [[Aryabhata]]; the basic ideas of [[atomic theory]] developed by [[Hindu]] and [[Jaina]] philosophers; the theory of light being equivalent to energy particles developed by the Indian [[Buddhist]] scholars [[Dignāga]] and [[Dharmakirti]]; the optical theory of [[light]] developed by [[Persian people | Persian]] [[Islamic science | scientist]] [[Alhazen]]; the [[Astrolabe]] invented by the Persian [[Mohammad al-Fazari]]; and the significant flaws in the [[Ptolemaic system]] pointed out by Persian scientist [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]].
As the influence of the [[Islam]]ic [[Caliph]]ate expanded to Europe, the works of Aristotle preserved by the [[Arab]]s, and the works of the Indians and Persians, became known in Europe by the [[12th century | 12th]] and [[13th century | 13th centuries]]. This eventually lead to the scientific revolution which culminated with the publication of the ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]'' in [[1687]] by the mathematician, physicist, alchemist and inventor Sir [[Isaac Newton]] ([[1643]]-[[1727]]).
[[Image:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Galileo]]]]
The Scientific Revolution is held by most historians (e.g., Howard Margolis) to have begun in [[1543]], when the first printed copy of [[Nicolaus Copernicus]]'s ''[[De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium | De Revolutionibus]]'' (most of which had been written years prior but whose publication had been delayed) was brought to the influential Polish astronomer from [[Nuremberg]].
[[Image:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg|thumb|150px|right|[[Sir Isaac Newton]]]]
Further significant advances were made over the following century by [[Galileo Galilei]], [[Christiaan Huygens]], [[Johannes Kepler]], and [[Blaise Pascal]]. During the early [[17th century]], Galileo pioneered the use of experimentation to validate physical theories, which is the key idea in modern [[scientific method]]. Galileo formulated and successfully tested several results in [[dynamics (mechanics) | dynamics]], in particular the Law of [[Inertia]]. In [[1687]], [[Isaac Newton | Newton]] published the ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica | Principia]]'', detailing two comprehensive and successful physical theories: [[Newton's laws of motion]], from which arise [[classical mechanics]]; and [[gravity | Newton's Law of Gravitation]], which describes the [[fundamental force]] of [[gravity]]. Both theories agreed well with experiment. The Principia also included several theories in [[fluid dynamics]]. Classical mechanics was re-formulated and extended by [[Leonhard Euler]], French mathematician [[Joseph Louis Lagrange | Joseph-Louis Comte de Lagrange]], Irish mathematical physicist [[William Rowan Hamilton]], and others, who produced new results in mathematical physics. The law of universal gravitation initiated the field of [[astrophysics]], which describes [[astronomy | astronomical]] phenomena using physical theories.
After Newton defined [[classical mechanics]], the next great field of inquiry within physics was the nature of [[electricity]]. Observations in the [[17th century | 17th]] and [[18th century]] by scientists such as [[Robert Boyle]], [[Stephen Gray (scientist) | Stephen Gray]], and [[Benjamin Franklin]] created a foundation for later work. These observations also established our basic understanding of electrical charge and [[electric current | current]].
[[Image:James Clerk Maxwell.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[James Clerk Maxwell]]]]
In [[1821]], the English physicist and chemist [[Michael Faraday]] integrated the study of [[magnetism]] with the study of electricity. This was done by demonstrating that a moving [[magnet]] induced an [[electric current]] in a [[Electrical conductor| conductor]]. Faraday also formulated a physical conception of [[electromagnetic field]]s. [[James Clerk Maxwell]] built upon this conception, in [[1864]], with an interlinked set of 20 equations that explained the interactions between [[electric field | electric]] and [[magnetic field]]s. These 20 equations were later reduced, using [[vector calculus]], to a set of [[Maxwell's equations | four equations]] by [[Oliver Heaviside]].
[[Image:Albert Einstein Head.jpg|thumb|left|175px|[[Albert Einstein]] in [[1947]]]]
In addition to other electromagnetic phenomena, Maxwell's equations also can be used to describe [[light]]. Confirmation of this observation was made with the [[1888]] discovery of [[radio]] by [[Heinrich Hertz]] and in [[1895]] when [[Wilhelm Roentgen]] detected [[X rays]]. The ability to describe light in electromagnetic terms helped serve as a springboard for [[Albert Einstein]]'s publication of the theory of [[special relativity]] in 1905. This theory combined classical mechanics with Maxwell's equations.
The theory of [[special relativity]] unifies space and time into a single entity, [[spacetime]]. Relativity prescribes a different transformation between [[inertial frame of reference | reference frames]] than classical mechanics; this necessitated the development of relativistic mechanics as a replacement for classical mechanics. In the regime of low (relative) velocities, the two theories agree. Einstein built further on the special theory by including gravity into his calculations, and published his theory of [[general relativity]] in [[1915]].
One part of the theory of general relativity is [[Einstein's field equation]]. This describes how the ''stress-energy tensor'' creates curvature of [[spacetime]] and forms the basis of general relativity. Further work on Einstein's field equation produced results which predicted the [[Big Bang]], [[black hole]]s, and the [[expanding universe]]. Einstein believed in a static universe and tried (and failed) to fix his equation to allow for this. However, by [[1929]] [[Edwin Hubble]]'s astronomical observations suggested that the universe is expanding.
From the late [[17th century]] onwards, [[thermodynamics]] was developed by physicist and chemist [[Robert Boyle | Boyle]], [[Thomas Young (scientist) | Young]], and many others. In [[1733]], [[Daniel Bernoulli | Bernoulli]] used statistical arguments with classical mechanics to derive thermodynamic results, initiating the field of [[statistical mechanics]]. In [[1798]], [[Benjamin Thompson | Thompson]] demonstrated the conversion of mechanical work into heat, and in [[1847]] [[James Joule | Joule]] stated the law of conservation of [[energy]], in the form of heat as well as mechanical energy. [[Ludwig Boltzmann]], in the 19th century, is responsible for the modern form of statistical mechanics.
In [[1895]], [[Wilhelm Röntgen | Röntgen]] discovered [[X-ray]]s, which turned out to be high-frequency electromagnetic radiation. [[Radioactivity]] was discovered in [[1896]] by [[Henri Becquerel]], and further studied by [[Maria Sklodowska-Curie | Marie Curie]], [[Pierre Curie]], and others. This initiated the field of [[nuclear physics]].
In [[1897]], [[J.J. Thomson | Joseph J. Thomson]] discovered the [[electron]], the elementary particle which carries electrical current in [[electrical circuit | circuits]]. In [[1904]], he proposed the first model of the [[atom]], known as the [[atom/plum pudding | plum pudding model]]. (The existence of the atom had been proposed in [[1808]] by [[John Dalton]].)
These discoveries revealed that the assumption of many physicists that atoms were the basic unit of [[matter]] was flawed, and prompted further study into the structure of [[atom]]s.
[[Image:Ernest Rutherford.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Ernest Rutherford]]]]
In [[1911]], [[Ernest Rutherford]] deduced from [[rutherford scattering | scattering experiments]] the existence of a compact atomic nucleus, with positively charged constituents dubbed [[proton]]s. [[neutron | Neutrons]], the neutral nuclear constituents, were discovered in [[1932]] by [[James Chadwick | Chadwick]]. The equivalence of mass and energy (Einstein, 1905) was spectacularly demonstrated during [[World War II]], as research was conducted by each side into [[nuclear physics]], for the purpose of creating a [[nuclear weapon | nuclear bomb]]. The German effort, led by Heisenberg, did not succeed, but the Allied [[Manhattan Project]] reached its goal. In America, a team led by [[Enrico Fermi | Fermi]] achieved the first man-made [[nuclear chain reaction]] in [[1942]], and in [[1945]] the world's first [[nuclear weapon | nuclear explosive]] was detonated at [[Trinity site]], near [[Alamogordo]], [[New Mexico]].
In [[1900]], [[Max Planck]] published his explanation of [[blackbody radiation]]. This equation assumed that radiators are [[quantum | quantized]], which proved to be the opening argument in the edifice that would become [[quantum mechanics]]. By introducing discrete energy elvels, Planck, Einstein, [[Niels Bohr]], and others developed [[quantum]] theories to explain various anomalous experimental results. Quantum mechanics was formulated in [[1925]] by [[Werner Heisenberg | Heisenberg]] and in [[1926]] by [[Erwin Schrödinger | Schrödinger]] and [[Paul Dirac]], in two different ways that both explained the preceding heuristic quantum theories. In quantum mechanics, the outcomes of physical measurements are inherently [[probability | probabilistic]]; the theory describes the calculation of these probabilities. It successfully describes the behavior of matter at small distance scales. During the [[1920s]] Schrödinger, Heisenberg, and [[Max Born]] were able to formulate a consistent picture of the chemical behavior of matter, a complete theory of the electronic structure of the atom, as a byproduct of the quantum theory.
[[Image:Feynman-bongos.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Richard Feynman]]]]
[[Quantum field theory]] was formulated in order to extend quantum mechanics to be consistent with special relativity. It was devised in the late [[1940s]] with work by [[Richard Feynman]], [[Julian Schwinger]], [[Sin-Itiro Tomonaga]], and [[Freeman Dyson]]. They formulated the theory of [[quantum electrodynamics]], which describes the electromagnetic interaction, and successfully explained the [[Lamb shift]]. Quantum field theory provided the framework for modern [[particle physics]], which studies [[fundamental force]]s and elementary particles.
[[Chen Ning Yang]] and [[Tsung-Dao Lee]], in the [[1950s]], discovered an unexpected [[asymmetry]] in the decay of a [[subatomic particle]]. In [[1954]], Yang and [[Robert Mills (physicist) | Robert Mills]] then developed a class of [[gauge theory | gauge theories]] which provided the framework for understanding the nuclear forces. The theory for the [[strong nuclear force]] was first proposed by [[Murray Gell-Mann]]. The [[electroweak force]], the unification of the [[weak nuclear force]] with electromagnetism, was proposed by [[Sheldon Lee Glashow]], [[Abdus Salam]] and [[Steven Weinberg]] and confirmed in [[1964]] by [[James Watson Cronin]] and [[Val Fitch]]. This led to the so-called [[Standard Model]] of particle physics in the [[1970s]], which successfully describes all the elementary particles observed to date.
Quantum mechanics also provided the theoretical tools for [[condensed matter physics]], whose largest branch is [[solid state physics]]. It studies the physical behavior of solids and liquids, including phenomena such as [[crystal structure]]s, [[semiconductor | semiconductivity]], and [[superconductor | superconductivity]]. The pioneers of condensed matter physics include [[Felix Bloch]], who created a quantum mechanical description of the behavior of electrons in crystal structures in [[1928]]. The transistor was developed by physicists [[John Bardeen]], [[Walter Houser Brattain]] and [[William Bradford Shockley]] in [[1947]] at [[Bell Labs | Bell Telephone Laboratories]].
The two themes of the [[20th century]], general relativity and quantum mechanics, appear inconsistent with each other. General relativity describes the [[universe]] on the scale of [[planet]]s and [[solar system]]s while quantum mechanics operates on sub-atomic scales. This challenge is being attacked by [[string theory]], which treats [[spacetime]] as composed, not of points, but of one-dimensional objects, [[string theory | strings]]. Strings have properties like a common string (e.g., [[Tension (mechanics) | tension]] and [[oscillation | vibration]]). The theories yield promising, but not yet testable results. The search for experimental verification of string theory is in progress.
[[Image:WYP2005 logo.gif|right|130px]]
The United Nations declared the year [[2005]], the centenary of Einstein's [[annus mirabilis]], as the [[World Year of Physics]].


== Future directions ==
== Future directions ==

Revision as of 10:58, 18 November 2006

Physics is the most basic of the natural sciences. Physics deals with the fundamental constituents of matter and their interactions, as well as how matter is organized on all possible length and time scales. Physics aims to provide unified descriptions of the behavior of matter and energy, from fundamental principles as much as possible, while describing a wide-variety of phenoma. Physics has considerable overlap with other sciences and engineering fields, most notably biology, chemistry, mathematics, electrical engineering and materials science

Physicists study a wide range of physical phenomena, from quarks to galaxies, from individual atoms to macroscopic biological systems.


Physics and Other disciplines

Physics finds applications throughout the other natural sciences as they regard the basic principles of nature. Physics is often said to be the "fundamental science", because the other sciences deal with material systems that obey the laws of physics. For example, chemistry is the science of matter (such as atoms and molecules) and the chemical substances that they form in the bulk. The structure, reactivity, and properties of a chemical compound are determined by the properties of the underlying molecules, which can be described by areas of physics such as quantum mechanics ( in the applied subfiled ofquantum chemistry), thermodynamics, and electromagnetism.

Physics is closely related to mathematics, which provides the logical framework in which physical laws can be precisely formulated and their predictions quantified. Physical definitions, models and theories are invariably expressed using mathematical relations. A key difference between physics and mathematics is that because physics is ultimately concerned with descriptions of the material world, it tests its theories by observations (called experiments), whereas mathematics does not have such requirements. The distinction, however, is not always clear-cut. This large area of research intermediate between physics and mathematics is known as mathematical physics.

Physics is also closely related to engineering and technology. For instance, electrical engineering is the study of the practical application of electromagnetism. Statics, a subfield of mechanics, is responsible for the building of bridges. Further, physicists, or practitioners of physics, invent and design processes and devices, such as the transistor, whether in basic or applied research. Experimental physicists design and perform experiments with particle accelerators, nuclear reactors, telescopes, barometers, synchrotrons, cyclotrons, spectrometers, lasers, and other equipment.

Central theories

While physics deals with a wide variety of systems, there are certain theories that are basis for physics. Each of these theories has been experimentally tested numerous times and found correct as an approximation of nature (within a certain domain of validity). These theories continue to be areas of active research; for instance, a remarkable aspect of classical mechanics known as chaos was discovered in the 20th century, three centuries after the original formulation of classical mechanics by Isaac Newton (1642–1727). These "central theories" are important tools for research into more specialized topics, and any physicist, regardless of his or her specialization, is expected to be literate in them.

  • Quantum mechanics is the branch of physics treating atomic and subatomic systems and their interaction with radiation in terms of observable quantities. It is based on the observation that all forms of energy are released in discrete units or bundles called quanta. Quantum theory typically permits only probable or statistical calculation of the observed features of subatomic particles, understood in terms of wave functions. Quantum mechanics itself has several levels of approximation.
  • Classical mechanics is a model of the physics of forces acting upon bodies. As opposed to quantum mechanics, classical mechanics is deterministic. Classical mechanics is usually regarded as a limit of quantum mechanics, although this has not been proven in general. Classical mechanics can be divided into two parts: Newtonian, after Newton and his laws of motion, and relativistic, due to Einstein and his theory of relativity.


Research and fields within physics

Physics can be subdivided in a variety of different manners; for teaching, for historical purposes, or for research purposes.

Contemporary research in physics is divided into several subfields. The following is based on the units the members of the American Physical Society organize themselves into in order of size. Although many physicists are members of multiple units

  • particle physics, also known as "high-energy physics". This branch is concerned with the properties of subatomic particles much smaller than atoms, including the elementary particles from which all other units of matter are constructed.
  • Atomic, molecular, and optical physics (AMO physics) which deals with the behavior of individual atoms and molecules, and including the ways in which they absorb and emit light. Molecular physics is sometimes considered a branch of chemical physics. Laser science may be considered a subfield of AMO or as a separate field.
  • Fluid dynamics concerns itself with the study of the moving fluids; liquids or gases.
  • Biological physics or biophysics. Many members of this field are actually biologists and chemists who are members of other societies. As evidenced by the size of the Biophysical Society, ~7000 members when compared to the biological physics unit of the APS , ~1800 members.

Classical and quantum physics

Further information: Classical physics, Quantum physics, Modern physics, Semiclassical

Another overall classification of physicial theories is classical vs. quantum. All theories should ultimately become quantum, but classical theories are often both sufficiently valid and accurate so as to avoid the need for quantum theories. Additionally, for some classical theories, e.g., relativity, quantum analogs have yet to be fully determine.

Quantum physics refers to those theories which follow the postulates of quantum mechanics. To this effect, all results that are not quantized are called classical: this includes the special and general theories of relativity. Simply because a result is classical does not mean that it was discovered before the advent of quantum mechanics.

Both classical and quantum physics are active areas of research. However, there exist problems in physics in which classical and quantum aspects must be combined to attain some approximation or limit that may acquire several forms as the passage from classical to quantum mechanics is often difficult — such problems are termed semiclassical.

Theoretical and experimental physics

Most individual physicists specialize in either theoretical physics or experimental physics. There have been few exceptions, such as great Italian physicist Enrico Fermi (1901–1954), who made fundamental contributions to both theory and experimentation.

Roughly speaking, theorists seek to develop theories, through mathematical and computational models, that can both describe and interpret existing experimental results and successfully predict future results, while experimentalists devise and perform experiments to explore new phenomena and test theoretical predictions. Although theory and experiment can be developed separately, they are strongly dependent on each other. Progress in physics frequently comes about when experimentalists make a discovery that existing theories cannot account for, necessitating the formulation of new theories, or when theorists make predictions that experimentalists test.


Future directions

For more information, see: Unsolved problems in physics.


Research in physics is progressing constantly on a large number of fronts, and is likely to do so for the foreseeable future.

In condensed matter physics, the biggest unsolved theoretical problem is the explanation for high-temperature superconductivity. Strong efforts, largely experimental, are being put into making workable spintronics and quantum computers.

In particle physics, the first pieces of experimental evidence for physics beyond the Standard Model have begun to appear. Foremost amongst these are indications that neutrinos have non-zero mass. These experimental results appear to have solved the long-standing solar neutrino problem in solar physics. The physics of massive neutrinos is currently an area of active theoretical and experimental research. In the next several years, particle accelerators will begin probing energy scales in the TeV range, in which experimentalists are hoping to find evidence for the Higgs boson and supersymmetric particles.

Theoretical attempts to unify quantum mechanics and general relativity into a single theory of quantum gravity, a program ongoing for over half a century, have not yet borne fruit. The current leading candidates are M-theory, superstring theory and loop quantum gravity.

Many astronomical and cosmological phenomena have yet to be satisfactorily explained, including the existence of ultra-high energy cosmic rays, the baryon asymmetry, the acceleration of the universe and the anomalous rotation rates of galaxies.

Although much progress has been made in high-energy, quantum, and astronomical physics, many everyday phenomena, involving complexity, chaos, or turbulence are still poorly understood. Complex problems that seem like they could be solved by a clever application of dynamics and mechanics, such as the formation of sandpiles, nodes in trickling water, the shape of water droplets, mechanisms of surface tension catastrophes, or self-sorting in shaken heterogeneous collections are unsolved. These complex phenomena have received growing attention since the 1970s for several reasons, not least of which has been the availability of modern mathematical methods and computers which enabled complex systems to be modeled in new ways. The interdisciplinary relevance of complex physics has also increased, as exemplified by the study of turbulence in aerodynamics or the observation of pattern formation in biological systems. In 1932, Horace Lamb correctly prophesied:

I am an old man now, and when I die and go to heaven there are two matters on which I hope for enlightenment. One is quantum electrodynamics, and the other is the turbulent motion of fluids. And about the former I am rather optimistic.

See also

Notes


  • Alpher, Herman, and Gamow. Nature 162,774 (1948). Wilson's 1978 Nobel lecture

Further reading

Popular reading

  • Leggett, Anthony (1988). The Problems of Physics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-289186-3. 
  • Rogers, Eric (1960). Physics for the Inquiring Mind: The Methods, Nature, and Philosophy of Physical Science. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08016-X. 

University-level textbooks

Introductory

  • Feynman, Richard. Exercises for Feynman Lectures Volumes 1-3. Caltech. ISBN 2-35648-789-1. 
  • Knight, Randall (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: A Strategic Approach. Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 0-8053-8685-8. 
  • Resnick, Robert; Halliday, David; Walker, Jearl. Fundamentals of Physics. 
  • Hewitt, Paul (2001). Conceptual Physics with Practicing Physics Workbook (9th ed.). Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-321-05202-1. 
  • Giancoli, Douglas (2005). Physics: Principles with Applications (6th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-060620-0. 
  • Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6th ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0-534-40842-7. 
  • Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0809-4. 
  • Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Electricity, Magnetism, Light, and Elementary Modern Physics (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0810-8. 
  • Wilson, Jerry; Buffa, Anthony (2002). College Physics (5th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-067644-6. 

Undergraduate

  • Thornton, Stephen T.; Marion, Jerry B. (2003). Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems (5th ed.). Brooks Cole. ISBN 0-534-40896-6. 
  • Wangsness, Roald K. (1986). Electromagnetic Fields (2nd ed.). Wiley. ISBN 0-471-81186-6. 
  • Fowles, Grant R. (1989). Introduction to Modern Optics. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-65957-7. 
  • Schroeder, Daniel V. (1999). An Introduction to Thermal Physics. Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-201-38027-7. 
  • Kroemer, Herbert; Kittel, Charles (1980). Thermal Physics (2nd ed.). W. H. Freeman Company. ISBN 0-7167-1088-9. 
  • Liboff, Richard L. (2002). Introductory Quantum Mechanics. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-8053-8714-5. 
  • Eisberg, Robert; Resnick, Robert (1985). Quantum Physics of Atoms, Molecules, Solids, Nuclei, and Particles (2nd ed.). Wiley. ISBN 0-471-87373-X. 
  • Taylor, Edwin F.; Wheeler, John Archibald (2000). Exploring Black Holes: Introduction to General Relativity. Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-201-38423-X. 
  • Schutz, Bernard F. (1984). A First Course in General Relativity. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-27703-5. 
  • Bergmann, Peter G. (1976). Introduction to the Theory of Relativity. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-63282-2. 
  • Tipler, Paul; Llewellyn, Ralph (2002). Modern Physics (4th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-4345-0. 
  • Perkins, Donald H. (1999). Introduction to High Energy Physics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-62196-8. 
  • Menzel, Donald Howard (1961). Mathematical Physics. Dover Publishications. ISBN 0-486-60056-4. 
  • Joos, Georg; Freeman, Ira M. (1987). Theoretical Physics. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-65227-0. 

Graduate

  • Landau, L. D.; Lifshitz, E. M. (1976). Course of Theoretical Physics. Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-2896-0. 
  • Morse, Philip; Feshbach, Herman (2005). Methods of Theoretical Physics. Feshbach Publishing. ISBN 0-9762021-2-3. 
  • Arfken, George B.; Weber, Hans J. (2000). Mathematical Methods for Physicists (5th ed.). Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-059825-6. 
  • Jackson, John D. (1998). Classical Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). Wiley. ISBN 0-471-30932-X. 
  • Huang, Kerson (1990). Statistical Mechanics. Wiley, John & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-81518-7. 
  • Merzbacher, Eugen (1998). Quantum Mechanics. Wiley, John & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-88702-1. 
  • Peskin, Michael E.; Schroeder, Daniel V. (1994). Introduction to Quantum Field Theory. Perseus Publishing. ISBN 0-201-50397-2. 
  • Wald, Robert M. (1984). General Relativity. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-87033-2. 

History

  • Cropper, William H. (2004). Great Physicists: The Life and Times of Leading Physicists from Galileo to Hawking. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517324-4. 
  • Heilbron, John L. (2005). The Oxford Guide to the History of Physics and Astronomy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517198-5. 
  • Weaver, Jefferson H. (editor) (1987). The World of Physics. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0-671-49931-9.  A selection of 56 articles, written by physicists. Commentaries and notes by Lloyd Motz and Dale McAdoo.

External links

General



Organizations


Template:Physics-footer


Template:Natural sciences-footer

Retrieved from "https://citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Physics&oldid=72246"