User:John Stephenson/sandbox: Difference between revisions

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{{NOINDEX}}
 
*[[:Category:Inactive CZ Authors]]
{| class="infobox bordered" style="width: 25em; text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"
*[[:Category:Inactive Astronomy Authors]]
|+ style="font-size: larger;" | '''{{{name}}}'''
*[[:Category:Inactive Biology Authors]]
|-
*[[:Category:Inactive Chemistry Authors]]
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | [[Image:{{{image}}}|300px| ]]<br>{{{caption}}}
*[[:Category:Inactive Earth Sciences Authors]]
|-
*[[:Category:Inactive Mathematics Authors]]
! Spoken in:
*[[:Category:Inactive Physics Authors]]
| originally [[England]]; spread to the rest of the [[British Isles]] and to the former colonies of the [[United Kingdom]]; now a [[world language]] also spoken as a [[first language]] in the [[USA]], [[Canada]], [[Ireland]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]] and [[South Africa]] and as a first or subsequent language in many other [[country|countries]], including [[India]] and [[Singapore]].
*[[:Category:Inactive Anthropology Authors]]
|-
*[[:Category:Inactive Archaeology Authors]]
! ''Speakers:'':
*[[:Category:Inactive Economics Authors]]
| at least 500,000,000 speakers as a first or subsequent language;<ref>See ''[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=eng Ethnologue]''.</ref> over 330,000,000 [[native speaker]]s; many millions more have some knowledge.
*[[:Category:Inactive Education Authors]]
|-
*[[:Category:Inactive Geography Authors]]
! ''Language Family:'':
*[[:Category:Inactive Law Authors]]
| style="padding-left: 1.1em;"|[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
*[[:Category:Inactive Linguistics Authors]]
| style="padding-left: 1.1em;"|[[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
*[[:Category:Inactive Politics Authors]]
| style="padding-left: 1.1em;"|[[English languages|English]]
*[[:Category:Inactive Psychology Authors]]
 
*[[:Category:Inactive Sociology Authors]]
| colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller;" | {{{footnotes|}}}
*[[:Category:Inactive Classics Authors]]
|}
*[[:Category:Inactive History Authors]]
 
*[[:Category:Inactive Literature Authors]]
 
*[[:Category:Inactive Philosophy Authors]]
{| cellpadding="1" style="float: right; border: 1px solid #8888aa; background: #f7f8ff; padding: 5px; font-size: 90%; margin: 0px 0px 15px 15px; clear:right;"
*[[:Category:Inactive Religion Authors]]
|-
*[[:Category:Inactive Architecture Authors]]
| style="background: #ccf; text-align: center;" | '''[[English]]''' [ɪŋglɪʃ]
*[[:Category:Inactive Music Authors]]
|-
*[[:Category:Inactive Theater Authors]]
| style="padding-left: 1.0em;"|'''Spoken:''' originally in [[England]]; spread to the rest of the [[British Isles]] and to the former colonies of the [[United Kingdom]]; now a [[world language]] also spoken as a [[first language]] in the [[USA]], [[Canada]], [[Ireland]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]] and [[South Africa]] and as a first or subsequent language in many other [[country|countries]], including [[India]] and [[Singapore]].
*[[:Category:Inactive Visual Arts Authors]]
|-
*[[:Category:Inactive Agriculture Authors]]
|style="border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc"|
*[[:Category:Inactive Business Authors]]
|-
*[[:Category:Inactive Computers Authors]]
| style="padding-left: 1.0em;"|''Speakers:'' at least 500,000,000 speakers as a first or subsequent language;<ref>See ''[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=eng Ethnologue]''.</ref> over 330,000,000 [[native speaker]]s; many millions more have some knowledge.
*[[:Category:Inactive Engineering Authors]]
|-
*[[:Category:Inactive Food Science Authors]]
| style="padding-left: 1.0em;"|''Language Family:'' [[Indo-European language|Indo-European]]
*[[:Category:Inactive Health Sciences Authors]]
|-
*[[:Category:Inactive Journalism Authors]]
| style="padding-left: 1.1em;"|[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
*[[:Category:Inactive Library and Information Science Authors]]
|-
*[[:Category:Inactive Media Authors]]
| style="padding-left: 1.1em;"|[[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
*[[:Category:Inactive Military Authors]]
|-
*[[:Category:Inactive Robotics Authors]]
| style="padding-left: 1.1em;"|[[English languages|English]]
*[[:Category:Inactive Games Authors]]
|-
*[[:Category:Inactive Hobbies Authors]]
|style="border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc"|
*[[:Category:Inactive Sports Authors]]
|-
*[[:Category:Inactive Eduzendium Authors]]
| style="padding-left: 1.0em;"|''Script:'' Written in the [[Roman alphabet]].
*[[:Category:Inactive Topic Informant Authors]]
|-
|}
 
 
 
Wikipedia English box:
 
{{Infobox Language
| name= English [ɪŋglɪʃ]
| states=Originally in [[England]]; spread to the rest of the [[British Isles]] and to the former colonies of the [[United Kingdom]]; now a [[world language]] spoken as a [[first language]] in the [[USA]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]] and [[South Africa]] and as a first or subsequent language in many other [[country|countries]], including [[India]] and [[Singapore]].
| speakers=At least 500,000,000 speakers as a first or subsequent language; over 330,000,000 [[native speaker]]s; many millions more have some knowledge.
| fam1= [[Indo-European language|Indo-European]]
| fam2= [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
| fam3= [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
| fam4= [[English languages|English]]
| script=Written in the [[Roman alphabet]]
}}
 
 
Indo-European  (449)
 
    Germanic  (53)
 
        West  (41)
 
        English (3)
 
            English  [eng] (United Kingdom)
 
            Scots  [sco] (United Kingdom)
 
            Yinglish  [yib] (USA)
 
{{Infobox Language
| name= English
| familycolor=Indo-European
| pronunciation=/ˈɪŋglɪʃ/
| states=<!--Please keep this list short and concise.-->[[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[India]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Jamaica]], [[Kenya]], [[Liberia]], [[Malaysia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Nigeria]], [[Philippines]], [[South Africa]], [[Singapore]], [[United Kingdom]], [[United States]] and many other countries (see article for full list)
| speakers=First language: 380 million <br />Second language: 600 million <br /> Learners: Over 1 billion<ref name="triumph" />
| rank= 2-4 (native speakers) <br /> 1 (total) 
| fam2=[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
| fam3=[[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
| fam4=[[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo-Frisian]]
| fam5=[[Anglic languages|Anglic]]
| script=[[Latin alphabet|Latin]]
| nation='''''Exclusive'':''' [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Barbados]], [[Belize]], [[Botswana]], [[Brunei]], [[Dominica]], [[The Gambia]], [[Grenada]], [[Guyana]], [[Jamaica]], [[Liberia]], [[The Bahamas]], [[United Kingdom]] ''(de facto)'',  [[United States of America|United States]] ''(de facto)'', [[Australia]] ''(de facto)''  <br>'''''Non-exclusive'':''' [[Cameroon]], [[Canada]], [[Hong Kong]], [[India]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Kenya]], [[Kiribati]], [[Kosovo]], [[Lesotho]], [[Malaysia]], [[Malta]], [[New Zealand]] ''(de facto)'', [[Pakistan]], [[Philippines]], [[Singapore]] ''(de facto)'', [[South Africa]], [[Zimbabwe]]
| iso1=en|iso2=eng|iso3=eng|map=[[Image:Anglospeak.png|center|300px]]<center><small>World countries, states, and provinces where English is a primary language are dark blue; countries, states, and provinces where it is an official, but not a primary language are light blue. </center></small>
}}
 
{{linguistics}}
'''Historical linguistics''' (also '''diachronic linguistics''') is the study of language change. It has several main concerns, such as:
* to describe and account for observed changes in particular languages
* to describe the linguistic history of [[speech community|speech communities]]
* to reconstruct the pre-history of languages and determine their relatedness, grouping them into [[Language family|language families]] (see [[comparative linguistics]])
* to develop general theories about how and why language changes
* to explain how [[language variation]] results in [[language change]].
 
Modern historical linguistics dates from the late [[18th century]] and grew out of the earlier discipline of [[philology]], the study of ancient texts and documents, which goes back to antiquity.
 
At first historical linguistics was [[comparative linguistics]] and mainly concerned with establishing language families and the reconstruction of prehistoric languages, using the [[comparative method]] and [[internal reconstruction]]. The focus was mainly on the well-known [[Indo-European languages]], many of which had long written histories, though other language groupings, such as [[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]] and [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] (see [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] and [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]]) were also recognized and studied in those early years. But since then, significant comparative linguistic work has been done on numerous other [[Language family|language families]] of the world. [[Comparative linguistics]] is now, however, only a part of a more broadly conceived discipline of historical linguistics. For the [[Indo-European languages]] comparative study is now a highly specialised field and most research is being carried out on the subsequent development of these languages, particularly the development of the modern standard varieties.
 
Initially, ''all'' modern linguistics was historical in orientation - even the study of modern dialects involved looking at their origins. But [[Saussure]] drew a distinction between [[synchronic linguistics|synchronic ]] and diachronic linguistics, which is fundamental to the present day organization of the discipline. Primacy is accorded to synchronic linguistics, and diachronic linguistics is defined as the study of successive synchronic stages. Saussure's clear demarcation, however, is now seen to be idealised. In practice, a purely synchronic linguistics is not possible for any period before the invention of the [[gramophone]]: written records always lag behind speech in reflecting linguistic developments, and in any case are difficult to date accurately before the development of the modern [[title page]]. Also, the work of [[sociolinguistics|sociolinguists]] on linguistic variation has shown synchronic states are not uniform: the speech habits of older and younger speakers differ in ways which point to language change. Synchronic variation is linguistic change in progress.
 
The biological [[origin of language]] is in principle part of the remit of historical linguistics, but most linguistics regard it as too remote to be reliably established by the [[comparative method]], given the remoteness from historical records. Other techniques, such as [[mass lexical comparison]], are regarded by some as means of overcoming the limitations of the comparative method, but most linguists regard them as unreliable.
 
The findings of historical linguistics are often used as a basis for hypotheses about the groupings and movements of peoples, particularly in the prehistoric period. However, it is now recognized that relating language to [[ethnic identity]] is problematic, as is relating language history to [[archaeology|archaeological]] or [[genetics|genetic]] evidence.
 
==See also==
*[[Comparative linguistics]]
*[[Comparative method]]
*[[Glottochronology]]
*[[Indo-European studies]]
*[[Language change]]
*[[Language family|Language families]]
*[[Paleolinguistics]]
*[[Proto-language]]
==Bibliography==
* [[August Schleicher]]: ''Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen.'' (Kurzer Abriss der indogermanischen Ursprache, des Altindischen, Altiranischen, Altgriechischen, Altitalischen, Altkeltischen, Altslawischen, Litauischen und Altdeutschen.) (2 vols.) Weimar, H. Boehlau (1861/62); reprinted by Minerva GmbH, Wissenschaftlicher Verlag, ISBN 3-8102-1071-4
*[[Karl Brugmann]], [[Berthold Delbrück]], ''[[Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen]]'' (1886-1916).
*Theodora Bynon, ''Historical Linguistics'' (Cambridge University Press, 1977) ISBN 0-521-29188-7
*Richard D. Janda and Brian D. Joseph (Eds), ''The Handbook of Historical Linguistics'' (Blackwell, 2004) ISBN 1-4051-2747-3
*Roger Lass, ''Historical linguistics and language change''. (Cambridge University Press, 1997) ISBN 0-521-45924-9
*Winfred P. Lehmann, ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' (Holt, 1962) ISBN 0-03-011430-6
*April McMahon, ''Understanding Language Change'' (Cambridge University Press, 1994) ISBN 0-521-44665-1
*James, Milroy, Linguistic Variation and Change'' (Blackwell, 1992) ISBN 0-631-14367-X
*M.L. Samuels, ''Linguistic Evolution'' (Cambridge University Press, 1972) ISBN 0-521-29188-7
*R.L. Trask,(ed.)''Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics '' (Fitzroy Dearborn, 2001) ISBN 1-57958-218-4

Latest revision as of 17:39, 4 March 2021


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