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{{Image|1024px-Blowing-alkali-dust-Owens-Lake.jpg|left|280px|Blowing dust at Owens Lake, California.}}
{{Image|1024px-Blowing-alkali-dust-Owens-Lake.jpg|left|270px|Blowing dust at Owens Lake, California.}}


'''Owens Lake''' (located in [[Inyo County]], [[California]], [[United States|USA]]) once was almost as large as [[Lake Tahoe]] in surface area. [[Charcoal kilns]], steamers, a flyway for [[migratory]] birds, and local agriculture were once located at this desert lake. Today, Owens Lake is mostly a [[dry lake bed]] with small patches of  water. This drastic change happened in 1913, after the lower [[Owens River]] was diverted into an aqueduct serving as a water supply for [[Los Angeles]] and created one of the largest man-made sources of air pollution by dust (particulate matter).
'''Owens Lake''' in [[Inyo County]], [[California (U.S. state)|California]], [[United States of America|USA]], was once almost as large in surface area as the better-known  [[Lake Tahoe]] between California and Nevada. Today it is infamous for the large amount of [[particulate matter]] that it generates, leading to [[air pollution]]. When it was a desert lake, it supported [[charcoal kilns]], steamers, a flyway for [[migratory]] birds, and local agriculture. For many years, beginning in 1913, Owens Lake was mostly a [[dry lake bed]] with small patches of  water. This was a result of the lower [[Owens River]] being diverted into an aqueduct serving as a water supply for [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]; this also led to one of the largest man-made sources of air pollution by dust (particulate matter). Recently, however, much of the dry bed has been re-ponded and a substantial portion of the original lake area is once again under water.


== History ==
== History ==
The Owens Valley, where Owens Lake is located, is part of the westernmost [[graben]]<ref>'''Note''': A graben is an elongated depression between geologic faults.</ref> of the Basin and Range province where two almost vertical faults. To the west is the [[Sierra Nevada]] range while the [[Inyo-White mountains]] are located to the east. Formation of the valley began approximately 3 million years ago during the [[Pliocene]] period.  
The Owens Valley, where Owens Lake is located, is part of the westernmost [[graben]]<ref>'''Note''': A graben is an elongated depression between geologic faults.</ref> of the Basin and Range province, lying between two almost vertical faults. To the west is the [[Sierra Nevada]] range while the [[Inyo-White mountains]] are located to the east. Formation of the valley began approximately 3 million years ago during the [[Pliocene]] period.  


The area is seismically active  and an estimated 8.0 earthquake in 1872 in[[ Lone Pine]], California killed 23 people. Most of the buildings in Lone Pine were also destroyed. [[Volcanic]] activity is also reported in the area as the Owens Valley is part of the [[Long Valley Caldera]]. Volcanic eruptions of the [[Inyo Chain]] were reported as early as 600 years ago.<ref name=Nature.NPS>[http://www.nature.nps.gov/GEOLOGY/inventory/publications/s_summaries/MANZ_scoping_summary_20041027.pdf Manzanar National Historic Site Geological Resources Management Issues Scoping Summary] From [[National Park Service]] website. Retrieved on 2011-01-31.</ref>
The area is seismically active  and an estimated 8.0 earthquake in 1872 in[[ Lone Pine]], California, killed 23 people. Most of the buildings in Lone Pine were also destroyed. [[Volcanic]] activity is also reported in the area as the Owens Valley is part of the [[Long Valley Caldera]]. Volcanic eruptions of the [[Inyo Chain]] were reported as early as 600 years ago.<ref name=Nature.NPS>[http://www.nature.nps.gov/GEOLOGY/inventory/publications/s_summaries/MANZ_scoping_summary_20041027.pdf Manzanar National Historic Site Geological Resources Management Issues Scoping Summary] From [[National Park Service]] website. Retrieved on 2011-01-31.</ref>


[[John C. Fremont]] explored the area and named the lake after his associate Richard Owens. Native Americans who lived in the area included the [[Paiute]], [[Mojave]] and [[Shoshone]] tribes. By the 1860s settlers moved into the Owens Lake area. Silver miners moved to the area when silver was discovered at [[Cerro Gordo]] located in mountains east of Owens Lake. Cerro Gordo is considered a ghost town and is open to tourists.
[[John C. Fremont]] explored the area and named the lake after his associate Richard Owens. Native Americans who lived in the area included the [[Paiute]], [[Mojave]] and [[Shoshone]] tribes. By the 1860s settlers moved into the Owens Lake area. Silver miners moved to the area when silver was discovered at [[Cerro Gordo]] located in mountains east of Owens Lake. Cerro Gordo is considered a ghost town and is open to tourists.


Farming soon followed after the early settlers arrived in the area.  [[Wheat]], [[potatoes]], [[apples]], [[corn]] and[[ grapes]] were being grown in the area in 1910. 43,000 [[sheep]] were also raised by local farmers.<ref name=OwensValleyHistory>[http://www.owensvalleyhistory.com/stories3/chronological_history_ov.pdf Chronological History of Owens Valley] Retrieved on 2011-01-3.</ref> Logging and a sawmill was built by [[Colonel Sherman Stevens]] in the 1870s. Lumber was used to build Stevens Wharf at Owens Lake. The wharf was built on the west side of the lake where the lumber was loaded onto steamers. The lumber was then ferried across the lake where it was unloaded onto a[[ dock]].It was then loaded onto [[freight]] wagons, then taken to local mines.  
Farming soon followed after the early settlers arrived in the area.  [[Wheat]], [[potatoes]], [[apples]], [[corn]] and[[ grapes]] were being grown in the area in 1910. 43,000 [[sheep]] were also raised by local farmers.<ref name=OwensValleyHistory>[http://www.owensvalleyhistory.com/stories3/chronological_history_ov.pdf Chronological History of Owens Valley] Note that the chronology ends in 1954. Retrieved on 2011-01-3.</ref> Logging and a sawmill was built by [[Colonel Sherman Stevens]] in the 1870s. Lumber was used to build Stevens Wharf at Owens Lake. The wharf was built on the west side of the lake where the lumber was loaded onto steamers. The lumber was then ferried across the lake where it was unloaded onto a [[dock]], from which point it was taken to the local mines on [[freight]] wagons.  


Stevens also built a pair of [[adobe]] ovens that produced [[charcoal]] for the Cerro Gordo mines. The [[steamers]] Molly Stevens and Bessie Brady were used to carry ore from the mines to waiting freight wagons. The ore was shipped down to [[Los Angeles]].<ref name=OwensValleyHistory/><ref name=LahontanValleyNews>[http://www.lahontanvalleynews.com/article/20090523/NEWS/905239962 Finding reminders of Owens Lake’s rich history] From website of the Lahontan Valley News. Retrieved on 2011-01-31.</ref>
Stevens also built a pair of [[adobe]] ovens that produced [[charcoal]] for the Cerro Gordo mines. lThe [[steamers]] Molly Stevens and Bessie Brady were used to carry ore from the mines to waiting freight wagons. The ore was shipped down to [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]].<ref name=OwensValleyHistory/><ref name=LahontanValleyNews>[http://www.lahontanvalleynews.com/article/20090523/NEWS/905239962 Finding reminders of Owens Lake’s rich history] From website of the Lahontan Valley News. Retrieved on 2011-01-31.</ref>


== Water for Los Angeles ==
== Water for Los Angeles ==
The City of Los Angeles buys up water rights between 1905 and 1907. Congressional funding was appropriated to pay for the proposed aqueduct project. Between 1910 and 1913 the Los Angeles aqueduct is built. On November 5, 1913, in the [[San Fernando Valley]] at the “Cascades” 30,000 Los Angeles residents gathered to celebrate the opening of the Los Angeles aqueduct. Bottles of Owens Valley water were distributed, speeches were made, and the aqueduct gates were opened. Water trickled forth.<ref name=PlatformAltar>[http://wsoweb.ladwp.com/Aqueduct/historyoflaa/altar.htm This Rude Platform is an Altar] From website of the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power. Retrieved on 2011-02-01.</ref>
The City of Los Angeles bought up the water rights between 1905 and 1907, and proposed and appropriated congressional funding for the Los Angeles aqueduct. The aqueduct was built between 1910 and 1913, and, when it was completed on November 5, 1913, 30,000 Los Angeles residents gathered in the [[San Fernando Valley]] at the “Cascades” to celebrate its opening. Bottles of Owens Valley water were distributed, speeches were made, and the aqueduct gates were opened. Water trickled forth.<ref name=PlatformAltar>[http://wsoweb.ladwp.com/Aqueduct/historyoflaa/altar.htm This Rude Platform is an Altar] From website of the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power. Retrieved on 2011-02-01.</ref>


By 1970 a second [[aqueduct]] was completed after the[[ U.S. Supreme Court]] allocated more [[Colorado River]] rights to [[Arizona]] leaving Los Angeles searching for more water sources. The newly built aqueduct ran from the [[Haiwee]], California reservoir just south of the Owens Lake dry river bed. After the construction of the second aqueduct, 70 percent of Los Angeles' water came from the Owens Valley area.<ref name=LATimes>[http://articles.latimes.com/2001/nov/18/local/me-5642 New Era for Old Foes in Water Wars] From website of the [[Los Angeles Times]]. Retrieved on 2011-01-31.</ref>
By 1970 a second [[aqueduct]] was completed after the[[ U.S. Supreme Court]] allocated more [[Colorado River]] rights to [[Arizona (U.S. state)|Arizona]] leaving Los Angeles searching for more water sources. The newly built aqueduct ran from the [[Haiwee]], California reservoir just south of the Owens Lake dry river bed. After the construction of the second aqueduct, 70 percent of Los Angeles' water came from the Owens Valley area.<ref name=LATimes>[http://articles.latimes.com/2001/nov/18/local/me-5642 New Era for Old Foes in Water Wars] From website of the [[Los Angeles Times]]. Retrieved on 2011-01-31.</ref>


== Air pollution ==
== Air pollution ==
The lake emitted an estimated 79,200 tons per year of PM<sub>10</sub> ([[particulate matter]] 10 microns or less<ref name=PM10>[http://gbuapcd.org/pm10.htm Particulate Air Pollution: A Threat To Our Health] From website of the Great Basin Unified Air Pollution Control District (GBUAPCD). Retrieved on 2011-01-31.</ref>) according to a [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) study done between July 2000 through June 2001.<ref name=EPA-Conference>[http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/conference/ei12/fugdust/present/ono.pdf Quantifying Particulate Matter Emissions from Wind Blown Dust Using Real-time Sand Flux Measurements] Duane Ono and Scott Weaver of the Great Basin Unified Air Pollution Control District, and Ken Richmond of MFG, Inc., U.S. EPA Emission Inventory Conference, San Diego, California, April 2003. From website of the U.S. EPA. Retrieved on 2011-01-31.</ref> That is equivalent to an average of  217 tons per day. During that test period, a peak value of 7,200 tons per day was encountered.  
In the past, the Owens Lake dry bed area was characterized as being the largest single source of PM<sub>10</sub> (particulate matter less than 10 microns in size) in the [[United States of America]] by the [[Great Basin Unified Air Pollution Control District]] (GBUAPCD)<ref name=PM-HealthEffects>[http://www.gbuapcd.org/Information/OwensLakeParticulateMatterHealthEffects.htm Survey of Reported Health Effects of Owens Lake Particulate Matter] January, 2000. Retrieved from the website of the Great Basin Unified Air Pollution Control District (GBUAPCD) on 2011-01-31.</ref><ref>'''Note:''' The primary air pollution regulatory agency in the state of California is the [[California Air Resources Board]] (CARB). The GBUAPCD is one of the 35 air pollution control districts, which report to CARB and which address air pollution problems at the local level.</ref>. That characterization was based on an approximate, unscientific estimate made in about 1986 that the annual PM<sub>10</sub> emissions were 300,000 tons.<ref>Personal correspondence in an email from Mr. Ted Schade of the GBUAPCD on February 3, 2011.</ref> Subsequently, the GBUAPCD monitored and scientifically tested the PM<sub>10</sub> emissions over a long period, including daily measurements from the period of July 2000 to 2001, and determined the annual PM<sub>10</sub> emissions were only 79,000 tons for that year-long test period.<ref name=EPA-Conference>[http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/conference/ei12/fugdust/present/ono.pdf Quantifying Particulate Matter Emissions from Wind Blown Dust Using Real-time Sand Flux Measurements] Duane Ono and Scott Weaver of the Great Basin Unified Air Pollution Control District, and Ken Richmond of MFG, Inc., U.S. EPA Emission Inventory Conference, San Diego, California, April 2003. From website of the U.S. EPA. Retrieved on 2011-01-31.</ref> That is equivalent to an average of  217 tons per day. During that test period, a single  peak daily value of 7,200 tons was encountered.  


Other reports state higher emission rates. Great Basin Unified Air Pollution Control District Air Pollution Control Officer Theodore D. Schade reported to the California Resources Board (CARB) the following:  
During the 1980s and the early 1990s, the [[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] (U.S. EPA) had designated the Owens Lake area as having not attained the [[National Ambient Air Quality Standards]] (NAAQS) for PM<sub>10</sub>. The wind-blown sand and  PM<sub>10</sub> air pollution affected approximately 40,000 residents living near Owens Lake. Regionally the blowing sand and dust also affected [[U.S. Forest Service]] employees and the [[United States Navy]]'s air weapons station located at nearby [[ China Lake]].<ref name=EPA-Region9>[http://epa.gov/region9/air/owens/history.html Owens Valley, CA Particulate Matter Plan: History] Note that this history from website of the U.S. EPA ends in about 1999. Retrieved on 2011-01-31.</ref> During those same years, nearby residents in [[Keeler, California]] reportedly were exposed to 25 unhealthful days a year while residents in the town of [[Ridgecrest, California]] experienced 10 unhealthful days per year due to the PM<sub>10</sub> air pollution.  An emergency physician at the Ridgecrest Community Hospital was reported as saying "When we see the white cloud headed down through the pass, the ER and doctors' offices fill up with people who suddenly got worse. It's a pretty straightforward cause and effect.”&thinsp;<ref name=USGS>[http://geochange.er.usgs.gov/sw/impacts/geology/owens/ Owens (Dry) Lake, California: A Human-Induced Dust Problem] Abstracted from: Reheis, M.C., in press, ''Dust deposition downwind of Owens (Dry) Lake, 1991-1994: Preliminary findings''. Retrieved from website of the [[U.S. Geological Survey]] on 2011-01-31.</ref>
In the late 1990s, after many years of litigation and negotiations that included the city of Los Angeles through its Department of Water and Power (LADWP), the Great Basin Unified Air Pollution Control District (GBUAPCD), the U.S. EPA, the U.S. Navy, the California State Lands Commission and other interested parties, the [[California Air Resources Board]] (CARB) submitted a [[State Implementation Plan]] (SIP)<ref>'''Note: '''An SIP is a detailed plan of how to achieve a healthy ambient air quality as required  by the United States'  Clean Air Act.</ref> to the U.S. EPA as required by the United States'  [[Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990|Clean Air Act]] (CAAA).<ref name=EPA-Region9/> In accordance with that SIP, the LADWP was made responsible for installing and operating  dust control measures on Owens Lake so as to attain the ambient air quality standards of the NAAQS. As of December 17, 2010, the air quality of the Owens Valley had not yet attained the NAAQS standards for (PM<sub>10</sub>)<ref>'''Note:''' The current NAAQS for PM<sub>10</sub> is a concentration in the ambient air of no more than 150 μg/m<sup>3</sup></ref> and its non-attainment status is still designated by the EPA as being "Serious".<ref name=GreenBook>[http://www.epa.gov/airquality/greenbk/ancl2.html Criteria Pollutant Area Summary Report] From website of the U.S. EPA Green Book. Retrieved on 2011-02-02</ref>


The emissive surfaces that form on Owens Lake make it the largest single source of air
{{Image|Owens Valley Mitigation Veg.jpg|right|250px|Re-vegetated section of the Owens Lake area as of early 2009.}}
pollution in the United States. It is the largest source in terms of total tons of air
{{Image|Owens Valley IBA 2010.jpg|right|250px|Owens Lake, 2010, designated as an "Important Bird Area" by the National Audubon Society}}  
pollutants emitted per year and in terms of the levels of Standard exceedances. According
to the Federally-approved attainment plan for the Owens Valley, the Owens Lake bed
emits as much as 290,000 tons of PM-10 per year (GBAPCD 1998, pg. 4-2). That is
about 580 million pounds of fine particulate matter or enough to fill a football field over
100 feet deep every year. Peak 24-hour PM-10 levels as high as 20,750 μg/m³ (138 times
the Standard) have been measured at a publicly accessible hot spring near the historic
shore of Owens Lake and 3,928 μg/m³ (26 times the Standard) in the town of Keeler on
the eastern edge of the lake bed. High exceedances also occur frequently. In 1999, for
example, of the top ten 24-hour PM-10 levels measured in the entire U.S., nine occurred
at Owens Lake—the tenth occurred in the Imperial Valley at Calexico. Similar high
exceedances occur at Owens Lake every year (GBAPCD 1998, pg. 3-8 and USEPA).
One of the reasons that Owens Lake is so dusty is that it is one of the youngest dry lakes
in the world. Its youth is what makes it different from the scores of other dry lakes found
in the western United States. The other dry lakes in the Great Basin have been dry for
hundreds to thousands of years; they have had time to naturally stabilize. Owens Lake
has been dry for less than a century; it is still in a very dynamic state. Given time, perhaps
hundreds of years, Owens Lake would stabilize; we see signs of natural stabilization
processes occurring. However, we cannot wait for hundreds of years—the Federal Clean
Air Act requires the Owens Lake dust to be controlled by the end of 2006 (GBAPCD
1998, pg. S-1).<ref name="urlwww.institute.redlands.edu">{{cite web | url = http://www.institute.redlands.edu/Salton/Downloads/Docs/EcologicalImpacts/Owens_Salton_Schade.pdf | title = www.institute.redlands.edu | format = | work = | accessdate = 2011-02-03}}</ref>


Schade is a registered civil engineer located in the Bishop office for the GBAPCD. He also states in his report to CARB: "I have been working on the dust problem at Owens Lake since September 1990. I have
However, the LADWP had made much progress:<ref>[http://www.ovcweb.org/docs/Rainshadow1208.pdf  President's Message] Scroll down to the section entitled "Recent News From Owens Lake" on page 5. Retrieved from the website of the Owens Valley Committee on 2011-02-02.</ref><ref>[http://iba.audubon.org/iba/viewSiteProfile.do?siteId=213&navSite=state Owens Lake] Retrieved from an Audubon Society website on 2011-02-02.</ref><ref name=OVC-OwensLake>[http://www.ovcweb.org/OwensValley/OwensLake.html Owens Lake] Retrieved from the  website of the Owens Valley Committee on 2011-02-02.</ref><ref>[http://www.waterplan.water.ca.gov/docs/cwpu2009/0310final/v3_southlahontan_cwp2009.pdf California Water Plan: Update 2009] Bulletin 160-09, Volume 3, Regional Reports, pdf page 32.</ref>
studied the geology, hydrology, biology, archaeology, history and of course meteorology
and air quality of Owens Lake. I would claim that I know as much about Owens Lake as
anyone."<ref name="urlwww.institute.redlands.edu">{{cite web | url = http://www.institute.redlands.edu/Salton/Downloads/Docs/EcologicalImpacts/Owens_Salton_Schade.pdf | title = www.institute.redlands.edu | format = | work = | accessdate = 2011-02-03}}</ref>


*The Owens Lake dust control project currently stretches across approximately 30 of the lake’s 100 square miles. About 27 square miles are covered with ponded water or are shallow-flooded and about  3.5 square miles have been re-vegetated and covered with native [[Saltgrass|saltgrass]] (see the adjacent photo). The saltgrass is irrigated by a water drip system.
*About 64 acres (0.1 square miles) has been covered with gravel as a dust control measure.
*An additional 9 square miles of ponding and shallow-flooding were planned to be added by the LADWP some time in 2010.
*The ponding and shallow-flooding have resulted in a substantial increase in wetlands habitat.
*Owens Lake has once again become a bird sanctuary and a major migratory stop-over site for shorebirds and waterfowl. Each spring and fall, brine flies on the lake support thousands of shorebirds, mainly sandpipers, and thousands of ducks utilize the wetlands habitat. An estimated 63,000 American Avocets stop at the lake during fall and a group of 300 to 400 Snow Geese now winters at Owens Lake.
* The [[National Audubon Society]] has now designated the Owens Lake bird sanctuary (see the adjacent photo) as  a "Important Bird Area" (IBA).


“Owens Lake is the largest single source of PM<sub>10</sub> in the United States,” states the [[Great Basin Unified Air Pollution Control District]].<ref name=PM-HealthEffects>[http://www.gbuapcd.org/Information/OwensLakeParticulateMatterHealthEffects.htm Survey of Reported Health Effects of Owens Lake Particulate Matter] From website of the Great Basin Unified Air Pollution Control District (GBUAPCD). Retrieved on 2011-01-31.</ref> The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the [[United States Federal Register]] state that Owens Lake is in noncompliance with established air quality standards.<ref name=EPA-FedRegister>[http://www.epa.gov/fedrgstr/EPA-AIR/2007/June/Day-06/a10857.htm Findings of Failure To Attain; State of Arizona, Phoenix Nonattainment Area; State of California, Owens Valley Nonattainment Area; Particulate Matter of 10 Microns or Less] From website of the U.S. EPA. Retrieved on 2011-01-31.</ref><ref name=USGS>[http://geochange.er.usgs.gov/sw/impacts/geology/owens/ Owens (Dry) Lake, California: A Human-Induced Dust Problem] From website of the [[U.S. Geological Survey]]. Retrieved on 2011-01-31.</ref>
The LADWP is also scheduled to complete a plan for the long-term habitat management in the entire dust control project area. To that end, the LADWP is cooperating with the GBUAPCD, the [[California Department of Fish and  Game]], the Audubon Society and the[[ Nature Conservancy]] in the development of a long-term habitat management plan for the entire Lake Owens project. The plan will examine and consider the dust control project as well as the springs and wetlands around the shoreline of the lake and is intended to help managers and conservation groups preserve the lake's rich wildlife resources.<ref name=OVC-OwensLake/>


The blowing sand and PM<sub>10</sub> air pollution has affected approximately 40,000 residents living near Owens Lake. Regionally the blowing dust and sand has affected United States Forest service employees and the navy base located at[[ China Lake]].<ref name=EPA-Region9>[http://epa.gov/region9/air/owens/history.html Owens Valley, CA Particulate Matter Plan: History] From website of the U.S. EPA. Retrieved on 2011-01-31.</ref> Nearby residents in [[Keeler, California]] reportedly are exposed to 25 unhealthful days a year while residents in the town of [[Ridgecrest, California]] experience 10 unhealthful days per year due to the PM<sub>10</sub> air pollution.  Dr. Bruce Parker  of Ridgecrest has been quoted as saying "When we see the white cloud headed down through the pass, the ER and doctors' offices fill up with people who suddenly got worse. It's a pretty straightforward cause and effect.”<ref name=PM-HealthEffects/>
As noted earlier above, the non-attainment status of the Owens Lake area is still designated as "Serious" by the U.S. EPA.<ref name=GreenBook/> However, as part of a  detailed discussion in the United States' [[Federal Register]] on June 24, 2010, of a proposed ruling to be made by the U.S. EPA, it is stated that  there has been a 90 percent decrease in emissions from the Owens lake area.<ref>[http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2010-06-24/pdf/2010-15453.pdf Federal Register, Volume 75, Number 21, June 24, 2010] See pages 36024 and 36030.</ref> That same assessment (a 90 percent decrease in emissions) has been made in a recent presentation by the GBUAPCD  and the LADWP to the Owens Lake Planning Committee.<ref>[https://owenslakebed.pubspsvr.com/Related%20Plans%20and%20Research%20Documents/Meeting%20Presentations/OL%20Master%20Plan%20presentation_051210.pdf Owens Lake Dust Control] Presentation to the Owens Lake Planning Committee, May 12, 2010. See last three pages.</ref> Therefore, it is probable that the current non-attainment status of "Serious" may be revised in the near future.
 
As of 2006, PM<sub>10</sub> emissions and blowing dust were somewhat reduced after the[[ Los Angeles Department of Water and Power]] allowed water to return to small sections of the lake and tributaries. [[Irrigation]] pipes and[[ bubblers]] will help water 13 1/2 miles of lake bed. [[Saltgrass]] will also be planted to help alleviate the blowing dust and associated air pollution.<ref name=LATimes>[http://articles.latimes.com/2001/nov/18/local/me-5642 New Era for Old Foes in Water Wars] From website of the [[Los Angeles Times]]. Retrieved 2011-01-31</ref> As of 2008, the Owens Valley Planning Area, did not attain the 24-hour [[National Ambient Air Quality Standards]] (NAAQS) for particulate matter of 10 microns or less (PM<sub>10</sub>) by December 31, 2006, as mandated by the United States [[Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990]] (CAAA).<ref name=(GBUAPCD)>[http://www.gbuapcd.org/airqualityplans.htm Overview Of Great Basin Unified Air Pollution Control District  Air Quality Plans] From website of the Great Basin Unified Air Pollution Control District. Retrieved on 2011-01-31.</ref> In 2009, 3.5 square miles of saltgrass have been planted. Drip irrigation is used to water the saltgrass. Ponded water or sheeting water is used to help keep the dust down. The area covered by water is 27 miles. The total amount of area covered by either grass or water is 30 miles out of the 100 mile lake bed. An additional 9 square miles of ponds or sheeting is planned as part of the Long-Term Habitat Management Plan. The Los Angeles Department of Water and Power is responsible for applying these mitigation measures which was scheduled for completion in 2010.<ref name=OVCweb>[http://www.ovcweb.org/docs/Rainshadow1208.pdf President's Message] From website of the Owens Valley Committee. Retrieved on 2011-02-02.</ref>
 
As of December 17, 2010, the Owens Valley is classified as "Serious" by the U.S. EPA concerning the nonattainment of the NAAQS for PM<sub>10</sub> air pollution.<ref name=CriteriaPollutantAreaReport>[http://www.epa.gov/airquality/greenbk/ancl2.html Criteria Pollutant Area Summary Report] From website of the U.S. EPA Green Book. Retrieved on 2011-02-02</ref>
 
 
 
===EPA Questions and Answers===
The following information is from the EPA questions and answers from the Region 9 web page. The EPA states the following:
 
*Owens Valley Particulate Matter (PM-10)
State Implementation Plan (SIP) Approval
Great Basin Unified Air Pollution Control District
 
*1. What does today's action mean for Owens Valley? The Great Basin Air Pollution Control District and the City of Los Angeles will now work together to ensure that the Owens Valley will meet the Clean Air Act requirements for clean air.
 
*2. What's in this plan? What does this plan require? The Plan describes the cause of the PM-10 violations and is a blueprint for how these emissions will be controlled to the level required under the CAA. The Owens plan contains three control measures, each of which is designed to reduce emissions from the Owens Lake bed. They are shallow flooding, managed vegetation, and gravel cover.
 
*3. Why is there another SIP due in 2003 when this one is just being approved now? The District commits to revise the SIP in 2003 to incorporate new knowledge and to ensure attainment of the PM-10 NAAQS by December 31, 2006. If the District determines that additional or fewer controls are required to meet the NAAQS by December 31, 2006, the 2003 SIP will provide for implementation of the appropriate control measures for the final step of the control strategy.
 
*4. How did the Great Basin District get the City of Los Angeles to agree to do these measures? By working together, the District and the City developed this Plan.
 
*5. Did EPA cut a deal with the City of Los Angeles on this plan? NO! EPA was a silent observer during the negotiations. If the negotiations failed, EPA would have imposed a Federal Implementation Plan (FIP).
 
*6. What are the health effects of PM-10? Recent research has linked exposure to relatively low concentrations of particulate matter with premature death. Those at greatest risk are the elderly and those with pre-existing respiratory or hear disease. Particulate matter air pollution is especially harmful to people with lung disease such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which includes chronic bronchitis and emphysema. Lung disease is the third leading cause of death in the United States. Exposure to air pollution can trigger asthma attacks and cause wheezing, coughing, and respiratory irritation in individuals with sensitive airways.
 
*7. What is the standard? The annual PM-10 standard is 50 micrograms per cubic meter (ug/m3) and the 24-hour standard is 150 ug/m3. The attainment demonstration in the Owens Valley area applies only to the 24-hour standard, since the area does not violate the annual NAAQS. The 3-year annual arithmetic mean for the most recent period (1996-1998) is 37.0 ug/m3.
 
*8. How do the new air quality standards affect this process? The new air quality standards did not affect this process. The opinion issued by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit in American Trucking Assoc. Inc., et al v. USEPA No. 97-1440 (May 14, 1999), among other things, vacated the new standards for PM-10 that were published on July 18, 1997, and became effective on September 16, 1997, but left in place the old PM-10 standard. The Owens Valley Plan was negotiated under the old (existing) PM-10 standard.
 
*9. How bad is the PM-10 problem in the Owens Valley? What are the PM-10 levels in Owens Valley? Owens Lake emits about 300,000 tons of PM-10 per year: 30 tons of this is arsenic and 9 tons is cadmium. Owens Lake is the largest single source of PM-10 pollution in the United States. It has caused on average about 19 violations of the standard every year at Keeler during the 18 years that the Great Basin Unified Air Pollution Control District has been measuring particulate matter. It is not a natural source, and the wind speeds (20 to 40 mph) that cause the dust events are not unusually high.
 
*10. Since the air is so bad in the Owens Valley, why has it taken so long to adopt a plan? In 1987, EPA designated the Owens Valley Planning Area as non-attainment for the Federal PM-10 standard. In 1988, 1991, and 1994, the District submitted to EPA committal SIPs describing control studies to determine the most effective measures and how the District would develop and order the City to implement PM-10 control measures on Owens Lake. Each of those SIPs projected that the measures would be developed at least by 1997 and the standard by 2001. The Owens Valley PM-10 problem is atypical since the problem is not based on traditional industrial emissions. Therefore, determining what would control PM-10 emissions has been difficult. Over the last decade, research was conducted on the lake bed to find the most effective control measures.
 
*11. Are there any significant PM-10 sources besides Owen’s Lake that can be controlled enough to make a difference? No. Particulate matter is a combination of fine solids such as dirt, soil dust, pollens, molds, ashes and soot; and aerosols that are formed in the atmosphere from gaseous combustion by products such as volatile organic compounds, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Particulate pollution comes from such diverse sources as factory and utility smokestacks, vehicle exhaust, wood burning, mining construction activity, and agriculture. The Great Basin Unified Air Pollution Control District and the California Air Resources Board have independently calculated the emissions in the Owens Valley planning area from industrial facilities, entrained pave road dust, mobile source tail pipe emissions, unpaved road dust, residential wood burning, prescribed burning and agricultural operations. These emissions total less that 1% of the annual inventory. Direct emissions from Owens Lake comprise 94% of the inventory and reentrained Owens Lake dust emissions deposited on the surrounding area comprise 5% of the inventory.
 
*12. Isn’t the whole problem caused naturally? No. The dry lake bed was caused by the complete diversion of water from the Owens River, the source of the lake. As a result, the particulate matter emissions on the dry lake bed are considered man-made and must be controlled to healthful levels. The Desert Research Institute of the University of Nevada at Reno has prepared a model to demonstrate what the elevation of the water would have been in Owens Lake from 1913 to 1995 if the water that the City has diverted to Los Angeles would have instead flowed into the Lake. The model shows that absent the City’s diversions, the natural water level of Owens Lake would have averaged 3,594 feet between 1979 and 1995, and covered all but 28 acres of the lake bed areas that the District has identified as dust sources. Based on the above discussion the District concludes that the City’s water diversions, by uncovering essentially all of the dust source areas on the dry lake bed, have caused or contributed to the measured particulate matter violations in the Owens Valley PM-10 Planning Area.
 
*13. What about CAA sanctions? No sanctions will happen. On February 2, 1999, EPA sent to the State of California a completeness review of the Owens Valley PM-10 SIP. The SIP submittal satisfied the completeness requirements of the Clean Air Act. This letter “shut-off” the clock that would have imposed an offset sanction on major new industrial sources on February 20, 1999, and a highway funding sanction that would have gone into effect on August 20, 1999. The FIP clock will be “shut-off” when EPA approves the SIP.
 
*14. How seriously would the sanctions have affected the region if they did apply? Because there are currently no major new industrial sources or new highway projects in the valley, the sanctions have had no immediate, practical effect on the people or business of Owens Valley.
 
*15. Why impose sanctions if they have no effect? The Clean Air Act gives EPA a non-discretionary responsibility to impose sanctions. The sanctions would, as indicated above, impact any new sources wishing to locate in the Valley.
 
*16. Does EPA still need to do a FIP? No; today’s approval of the SIP fills the gap and eliminates the need for EPA to do a FIP.
 
*17. Is there any way to solve the PM-10 problem without having LA return some of its water? The approved plan is based on a combination of measures, only one of which is the application of water via a drip pipe irrigation system over a portion of the dry lake bed. The water needed can be obtained from any available source and does not have to come from the City’s supply.<ref name="urlQ & A - Owens Valley Particulate Matter Plan | Region 9: Air | US EPA">{{cite web | url = http://www.epa.gov/region9/air/owens/qa.html | title = Q & A - Owens Valley Particulate Matter Plan &#124; Region 9: Air &#124; US EPA | format = | work = | accessdate = 2011-02-03}}</ref>


==References==
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(CC) Image: Richard Ellis
Blowing dust at Owens Lake, California.

Owens Lake in Inyo County, California, USA, was once almost as large in surface area as the better-known Lake Tahoe between California and Nevada. Today it is infamous for the large amount of particulate matter that it generates, leading to air pollution. When it was a desert lake, it supported charcoal kilns, steamers, a flyway for migratory birds, and local agriculture. For many years, beginning in 1913, Owens Lake was mostly a dry lake bed with small patches of water. This was a result of the lower Owens River being diverted into an aqueduct serving as a water supply for Los Angeles; this also led to one of the largest man-made sources of air pollution by dust (particulate matter). Recently, however, much of the dry bed has been re-ponded and a substantial portion of the original lake area is once again under water.

History

The Owens Valley, where Owens Lake is located, is part of the westernmost graben[1] of the Basin and Range province, lying between two almost vertical faults. To the west is the Sierra Nevada range while the Inyo-White mountains are located to the east. Formation of the valley began approximately 3 million years ago during the Pliocene period.

The area is seismically active and an estimated 8.0 earthquake in 1872 inLone Pine, California, killed 23 people. Most of the buildings in Lone Pine were also destroyed. Volcanic activity is also reported in the area as the Owens Valley is part of the Long Valley Caldera. Volcanic eruptions of the Inyo Chain were reported as early as 600 years ago.[2]

John C. Fremont explored the area and named the lake after his associate Richard Owens. Native Americans who lived in the area included the Paiute, Mojave and Shoshone tribes. By the 1860s settlers moved into the Owens Lake area. Silver miners moved to the area when silver was discovered at Cerro Gordo located in mountains east of Owens Lake. Cerro Gordo is considered a ghost town and is open to tourists.

Farming soon followed after the early settlers arrived in the area. Wheat, potatoes, apples, corn andgrapes were being grown in the area in 1910. 43,000 sheep were also raised by local farmers.[3] Logging and a sawmill was built by Colonel Sherman Stevens in the 1870s. Lumber was used to build Stevens Wharf at Owens Lake. The wharf was built on the west side of the lake where the lumber was loaded onto steamers. The lumber was then ferried across the lake where it was unloaded onto a dock, from which point it was taken to the local mines on freight wagons.

Stevens also built a pair of adobe ovens that produced charcoal for the Cerro Gordo mines. lThe steamers Molly Stevens and Bessie Brady were used to carry ore from the mines to waiting freight wagons. The ore was shipped down to Los Angeles.[3][4]

Water for Los Angeles

The City of Los Angeles bought up the water rights between 1905 and 1907, and proposed and appropriated congressional funding for the Los Angeles aqueduct. The aqueduct was built between 1910 and 1913, and, when it was completed on November 5, 1913, 30,000 Los Angeles residents gathered in the San Fernando Valley at the “Cascades” to celebrate its opening. Bottles of Owens Valley water were distributed, speeches were made, and the aqueduct gates were opened. Water trickled forth.[5]

By 1970 a second aqueduct was completed after theU.S. Supreme Court allocated more Colorado River rights to Arizona leaving Los Angeles searching for more water sources. The newly built aqueduct ran from the Haiwee, California reservoir just south of the Owens Lake dry river bed. After the construction of the second aqueduct, 70 percent of Los Angeles' water came from the Owens Valley area.[6]

Air pollution

In the past, the Owens Lake dry bed area was characterized as being the largest single source of PM10 (particulate matter less than 10 microns in size) in the United States of America by the Great Basin Unified Air Pollution Control District (GBUAPCD)[7][8]. That characterization was based on an approximate, unscientific estimate made in about 1986 that the annual PM10 emissions were 300,000 tons.[9] Subsequently, the GBUAPCD monitored and scientifically tested the PM10 emissions over a long period, including daily measurements from the period of July 2000 to 2001, and determined the annual PM10 emissions were only 79,000 tons for that year-long test period.[10] That is equivalent to an average of 217 tons per day. During that test period, a single peak daily value of 7,200 tons was encountered.

During the 1980s and the early 1990s, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) had designated the Owens Lake area as having not attained the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for PM10. The wind-blown sand and PM10 air pollution affected approximately 40,000 residents living near Owens Lake. Regionally the blowing sand and dust also affected U.S. Forest Service employees and the United States Navy's air weapons station located at nearby China Lake.[11] During those same years, nearby residents in Keeler, California reportedly were exposed to 25 unhealthful days a year while residents in the town of Ridgecrest, California experienced 10 unhealthful days per year due to the PM10 air pollution. An emergency physician at the Ridgecrest Community Hospital was reported as saying "When we see the white cloud headed down through the pass, the ER and doctors' offices fill up with people who suddenly got worse. It's a pretty straightforward cause and effect.” [12]

In the late 1990s, after many years of litigation and negotiations that included the city of Los Angeles through its Department of Water and Power (LADWP), the Great Basin Unified Air Pollution Control District (GBUAPCD), the U.S. EPA, the U.S. Navy, the California State Lands Commission and other interested parties, the California Air Resources Board (CARB) submitted a State Implementation Plan (SIP)[13] to the U.S. EPA as required by the United States' Clean Air Act (CAAA).[11] In accordance with that SIP, the LADWP was made responsible for installing and operating dust control measures on Owens Lake so as to attain the ambient air quality standards of the NAAQS. As of December 17, 2010, the air quality of the Owens Valley had not yet attained the NAAQS standards for (PM10)[14] and its non-attainment status is still designated by the EPA as being "Serious".[15]

(PD) Photo: U.S. EPA, Region 9
Re-vegetated section of the Owens Lake area as of early 2009.
© Photo: Andrea Jones, National Audubon Society
Owens Lake, 2010, designated as an "Important Bird Area" by the National Audubon Society

However, the LADWP had made much progress:[16][17][18][19]

  • The Owens Lake dust control project currently stretches across approximately 30 of the lake’s 100 square miles. About 27 square miles are covered with ponded water or are shallow-flooded and about 3.5 square miles have been re-vegetated and covered with native saltgrass (see the adjacent photo). The saltgrass is irrigated by a water drip system.
  • About 64 acres (0.1 square miles) has been covered with gravel as a dust control measure.
  • An additional 9 square miles of ponding and shallow-flooding were planned to be added by the LADWP some time in 2010.
  • The ponding and shallow-flooding have resulted in a substantial increase in wetlands habitat.
  • Owens Lake has once again become a bird sanctuary and a major migratory stop-over site for shorebirds and waterfowl. Each spring and fall, brine flies on the lake support thousands of shorebirds, mainly sandpipers, and thousands of ducks utilize the wetlands habitat. An estimated 63,000 American Avocets stop at the lake during fall and a group of 300 to 400 Snow Geese now winters at Owens Lake.
  • The National Audubon Society has now designated the Owens Lake bird sanctuary (see the adjacent photo) as a "Important Bird Area" (IBA).

The LADWP is also scheduled to complete a plan for the long-term habitat management in the entire dust control project area. To that end, the LADWP is cooperating with the GBUAPCD, the California Department of Fish and Game, the Audubon Society and theNature Conservancy in the development of a long-term habitat management plan for the entire Lake Owens project. The plan will examine and consider the dust control project as well as the springs and wetlands around the shoreline of the lake and is intended to help managers and conservation groups preserve the lake's rich wildlife resources.[18]

As noted earlier above, the non-attainment status of the Owens Lake area is still designated as "Serious" by the U.S. EPA.[15] However, as part of a detailed discussion in the United States' Federal Register on June 24, 2010, of a proposed ruling to be made by the U.S. EPA, it is stated that there has been a 90 percent decrease in emissions from the Owens lake area.[20] That same assessment (a 90 percent decrease in emissions) has been made in a recent presentation by the GBUAPCD and the LADWP to the Owens Lake Planning Committee.[21] Therefore, it is probable that the current non-attainment status of "Serious" may be revised in the near future.

References

  1. ↑ Note: A graben is an elongated depression between geologic faults.
  2. ↑ Manzanar National Historic Site Geological Resources Management Issues Scoping Summary From National Park Service website. Retrieved on 2011-01-31.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Chronological History of Owens Valley Note that the chronology ends in 1954. Retrieved on 2011-01-3.
  4. ↑ Finding reminders of Owens Lake’s rich history From website of the Lahontan Valley News. Retrieved on 2011-01-31.
  5. ↑ This Rude Platform is an Altar From website of the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power. Retrieved on 2011-02-01.
  6. ↑ New Era for Old Foes in Water Wars From website of the Los Angeles Times. Retrieved on 2011-01-31.
  7. ↑ Survey of Reported Health Effects of Owens Lake Particulate Matter January, 2000. Retrieved from the website of the Great Basin Unified Air Pollution Control District (GBUAPCD) on 2011-01-31.
  8. ↑ Note: The primary air pollution regulatory agency in the state of California is the California Air Resources Board (CARB). The GBUAPCD is one of the 35 air pollution control districts, which report to CARB and which address air pollution problems at the local level.
  9. ↑ Personal correspondence in an email from Mr. Ted Schade of the GBUAPCD on February 3, 2011.
  10. ↑ Quantifying Particulate Matter Emissions from Wind Blown Dust Using Real-time Sand Flux Measurements Duane Ono and Scott Weaver of the Great Basin Unified Air Pollution Control District, and Ken Richmond of MFG, Inc., U.S. EPA Emission Inventory Conference, San Diego, California, April 2003. From website of the U.S. EPA. Retrieved on 2011-01-31.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Owens Valley, CA Particulate Matter Plan: History Note that this history from website of the U.S. EPA ends in about 1999. Retrieved on 2011-01-31.
  12. ↑ Owens (Dry) Lake, California: A Human-Induced Dust Problem Abstracted from: Reheis, M.C., in press, Dust deposition downwind of Owens (Dry) Lake, 1991-1994: Preliminary findings. Retrieved from website of the U.S. Geological Survey on 2011-01-31.
  13. ↑ Note: An SIP is a detailed plan of how to achieve a healthy ambient air quality as required by the United States' Clean Air Act.
  14. ↑ Note: The current NAAQS for PM10 is a concentration in the ambient air of no more than 150 μg/m3
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Criteria Pollutant Area Summary Report From website of the U.S. EPA Green Book. Retrieved on 2011-02-02
  16. ↑ President's Message Scroll down to the section entitled "Recent News From Owens Lake" on page 5. Retrieved from the website of the Owens Valley Committee on 2011-02-02.
  17. ↑ Owens Lake Retrieved from an Audubon Society website on 2011-02-02.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Owens Lake Retrieved from the website of the Owens Valley Committee on 2011-02-02.
  19. ↑ California Water Plan: Update 2009 Bulletin 160-09, Volume 3, Regional Reports, pdf page 32.
  20. ↑ Federal Register, Volume 75, Number 21, June 24, 2010 See pages 36024 and 36030.
  21. ↑ Owens Lake Dust Control Presentation to the Owens Lake Planning Committee, May 12, 2010. See last three pages.
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