Dutch language
Dutch is a West-Germanic language spoken by roughly 20 million people in the Netherlands, Belgium, Suriname, and the Netherlands Antilles. The standard language Algemeen Nederlands (lit. "General Dutch"), formerly called Algemeen Beschaafd Nederlands (ABN) (lit. "General Civilized Dutch"), is largely based on the Hollandic dialects spoken in the western Dutch provinces of North and South Holland, but with considerable influence from Flemish dialects spoken in Belgium.
Flemish is not a separate language, but rather the designation of the Dutch dialects spoken in Belgium. Frisian is a closely-related but separate West-Germanic language spoken in the Dutch province of Friesland (Fris. Fryslân) and in a few small areas in northern Germany. However, Stadsfries (lit. "City Frisian") dialect spoken in some larger towns and cities of Friesland, is really a Dutch dialect with Frisian admixtures. Afrikaans, spoken in South Africa and Namibia, is a language descended from Dutch, with a simplified morphology and many lexical influences from the indigenous languages of Africa and India, and also, to some extent, the Indonesian language.
Dialects
Traditionally, the Dutch language is divided into five major dialect groups:
- Hollandic, which includes the dialects spoken in North and South Holland, Utrecht and the southwestern portion of Gelderland.
- Saxon, which refers to the dialects spoken in the northeastern provinces of the Netherlands and which are closely related to Low German.
- Brabantic (or Brabantian), spoken in the Dutch province of North Brabant and the Belgian provinces of Antwerp and Flemish Brabant.
- Limburgic (or Limburgish), spoken in the Dutch province of Limburg and the Belgian province of Belgian Limburg.
- Flemish, spoken in the Belgian provinces of East and West Flanders.
The dialects of the Dutch province of Zeeland are often included in the Flemish group, though in reality they are halfway between Flemish and Hollandic (with the exception of the area of Zeeland Flanders, where Flemish is spoken).
Grammar
Phonology
Vowels
Consonants
Modern Standard Dutch has the following consonants:
| bilabial | labiodental | alveolar | postalveolar | palatal | velar | glottal | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| plosive | p b | t d | k (ɡ) | ||||
| fricative | f v | s z | (ʃ) (ʒ) | x ɣ | h | ||
| nasal | m | n | (ɲ) | ŋ | |||
| trill | r | ||||||
| approximant | ʋ | l | j |
The status of several of these consonants are unclear. For instance, /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ are usually listed as either marginal phonemes occurring only in loanwords from French and English or as allophones of the phoneme clusters /sj/ and /zj/. Yet /ʃ/ also appears in ancient loans from Frisian such as sjoelen 'to play shuffleboard (a game).' The voiced velar plosive /ɡ/ also seems to be only a marginal phoneme.
The trill /r/ is not necessarily an alveolar trill for all speakers. The uvular /ʀ/ is also quite common and the contrast is neither phonemic nor strictly regional. Some speakers in southern dialects use a bilabial /w/ instead of the labiodental approximant /ʋ/.
So-called weak [tʲ] in the diminutive suffix, as well as in other /tj/ clusters, is usually designated as an allophone of /t/, but not all linguists agree on this classifiation. As the assibilated reflex of Gmc. */k/ it appears in Dutch dialects in many forms; it could equally be classified as either an allophone of /k/ or as an independent phoneme /ç/.
Dutch has a rule for final devoicing, meaning that voiced consonants cannot appear in syllable-final position. Thus, the word paard 'horse' is pronounced [pa:rt], with [t] from /d/.
Morphology
Substantive Inflections
Nouns in Modern Standard Dutch have one of two genders: common or neuter. Some Brabantic and Flemish dialects retain a difference between masculine, feminine and neuter. Gender is visible in the use of articles (de for common, het for neuter) and demonstratives. Dutch no longer indicates noun cases, though a good number of petrified expressions still appear in dative and genitive forms, e.g. van goede huize 'from good stock, background' (dative), heer des huizes 'lord of the manor, house' (genitive).
Plurals of nouns are formed by adding either -en or -s, though many foreign loanwords retain their own plurals:
- dag 'day' - dagen 'days'
- meisje 'girl' - meisjes 'girls'
- museum 'id.' - musea 'museums'
Dutch nouns can also be diminuized by adding the ending -(t)je (and some other variants). The use of diminutive nouns is extremely common in Dutch and does not necessarily imply anything about the size of the item as it is often used colloquially for food and drink items and it is also used hypocoristically. Diminuized nouns are all neuter.
The original Germanic system of adjective inflection has become greatly simplified, so that all attributive adjectives now take the ending -e except for those modifying a neuter noun not preceded by a definite article or demonstrative:
- de kleine auto 'the small car'
- een kleine auto 'a small car'
- het grote huis 'the large house'
- een groot huis 'a large house'
- de kwakende eenden 'the quacking ducks'
- kwakende eenden 'quacking ducks'
Like English, the Dutch personal pronoun system retains a difference between nominative and oblique (or subject and object) forms. For the 3rd person plural, a difference between dative and accusative remains.
Verbal Inflections
In the past tense and the perfect Dutch, like all other Germanic languages retains the division between strong and weak verbs. Thus, weak verbs form their preterit and perfect by adding a suffix with a dental (t or d), while strong verbs, instead of adding a suffix, change their stem vowel according to a number of set patterns. Dutch retains verbs for all 7 classes of strong verbs, though the forms for the preterit singular and plural have coalesced.
Syntax
Vocabulary
History of the Dutch Language
Dutch is a West-Germanic language, meaning it is closely related to English, Frisian, and German, and, slightly more distantly to the North-Germanic languages, and ultimately to the other Indo-European languages. It is usual to distinguish between four historical stages of the language.
Old Dutch (ca. AD 600-1100)
- see main article: Old Dutch
The exact origin of the Dutch language is unclear, as little is known about the place of the earliest stages of the Dutch dialects within West Germanic. The term Old Dutch is largely a term of convenience referring to a putative earliest stage of the language (ca. AD 600-1100). We have virtually no written records for this stage of the language apart from some fragments of a translation of the Psalms in an early Limburgic dialect that is usually designated as "Old East Low Franconian." Features of Dutch indicate that it was close to English and Frisian, because it participated, at least partly, in a number of sound changes peculiar to these languages (sometimes grouped together as Anglo-Frisian), such as the loss of n before alveolar consonants (cf. English mouth, Dutch IJmuiden [place name], Standard Dutch mond) in some dialects and the assibilation of velar consonants in some dialects, esp. the assibilated "tj" (from Gmc. *k) in Dutch diminutives and the confusion of Gmc. *g and *j.
Middle Dutch (ca. AD 1100-1500)
- see main article: Middle Dutch
Early Modern Dutch (ca. 1500-1700)
- see main article: Early Modern Dutch
Modern Dutch (ca. 1700-present)
References
Bibliography
Grammar
- Geert Booij. 1995. The Phonology of Dutch. Oxford: Clarendon. ISBN 0198240279
- Geert Booij. 2002. The Morphology of Dutch. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198299796; ISBN 019829980X (pbk)
- A. Cohen et al. 1972. Fonologie van het Nederlands en het Fries. Inleiding tot de moderne klankleer. 2nd ed. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.
- Bruce C. Donaldson. 1997. Dutch: A Comprehensive Grammar. London/New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415154189; ISBN 0415154197 (pbk)
- Jan Goossens et al. eds. 1998-2002. Fonologische atlas van de nederlandse dialecten. 3 vols. Gent : Koninklijke Academie voor Nederlandse Taal- en Letterkunde. vol. 1 ISBN 9072474228; vol. 2-3 ISBN 9072474368; vol. 4 ISBN 9072474619
- G. de Schutter et al. eds. 2005-<present>. MAND: Morfologische atlas van de Nederlandse dialecten = Morphological Atlas of the Dutch Dialects. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. vol. 1 ISBN 905356697X (maps); vol. 1 ISBN 9053566988 (commentary)
- William Z. Shetter and Esther Ham. 2007. Dutch: An Essential Grammar. 9th ed. New York/London: Routledge. ISBN 9780415423076; ISBN 0415423074; ISBN 9780203935712 (e-book); ISBN 0203935713 (e-book)
History of Dutch
- Adolphe van Loey. 1970. Schönfelds historische grammatica van het Nederlands. Klankleer, vormleer, woordvorming. 8th edition. Zutphen: Thieme.
- Jan Goossens. 1974. Historische Phonologie des Niederländischen. Tübingen: Niemeyer. ISBN3484600357