Bahá'í Faith

The Baha'i religion was founded during the 1860s by Baha'u'llah (1817-1892), an Iranian-born leader of Babi exiles in the Ottoman Empire. Baha'is (as its followers are called) recognize Bahá'u'lláh as the most recent in a series of divine "prophet-founders" which also includes Zarathustra, Krishna, Buddha, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Muhammad, and the Bab. That is, just as Islam claims to supercede previous Abrahamic religions, so does the Bahá'í religion claim to supercede Islam (and Babism).

From its origins in the Persian and Ottoman Empires, the Bahá'í religion attracted a significant number of Western followers by World War I. During the 1960's it expanded into various Third World countries in South and Southeast Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, South America, and the Pacific. As a result it now enjoys a noteworthy geographic spread, with a membership drawn from hundreds of nations and ethnic groups.

Bahá'ís expect this process to continue into the indefinite future, until most of the world's people are Bahá'ís. Bahá'u'lláh's teachings, they believe, herald the gradual rise of a new global civilization characterized by world peace. "The earth is but one country," wrote Bahá'u'lláh (in the Lawh-i-Maqsud), "and mankind its citizens."

Nomenclature

The word "Bahá'í" (/baˈhaːʔiː/)comes from the Arabic word Bahá’ (بهاء), meaning "glory" or "splendor"--a term which forms part of Bahá'u'lláh's assumed title. Properly the term "Bahá'í" is either an adjective referring to the religion, or a noun for a follower of Bahá'u'lláh, but not a noun for the religion itself.

Members of the main body of Bahá'ís often refer to their religion as the "Bahá'í Faith," preferring "faith" to "religion," and treating it as part of the religion's name. Names like "Baha'ism," "Bahaism," "Behaism," etc. are sometimes encountered in older material, or in material by dissidents, but are avoided by mainstream Bahá'ís for complex historical reasons ("Babism," however, meets with less objection), "Bahá'í religion" is also a common usage.

Bahá'í institutions express a preference for the orthography "Bahá'í" (i.e. with diacritical marks), using a particular transcription of the Arabic and Persian. The acute accents used here can also be written as horizontal lines (macrons) above the vowels. The "apostrophe" stands for a 'hamzih or glottal stop; otherwise English speakers might be tempted to pronounce ai as a diphthong.

Size

Attempts to estimate the Bahá'í population face problems common to many religions. Some of these are definitional; unlike most other religions, the religion's administration registers new members, but has no way to track people who do not officially resign their membership. In a few countries where the Bahá'í Faith is well known (such as Bolivia, where there is a popular Bahá'í radio station), the government census actually gives a membership number larger than the official Bahá'í statistic. Other problems are practical and arise from the sheer difficulty of estimating a minority population spread over numerous cultures and countries (including some where the religion is illegal). Recent estimates have ranged from a little more than a million, to upwards of seven million. The official Bahá'í number is five to six million.

Observers often notice a discrepency between government and Bahá'í figures. As an illustration, official Bahá'í statistics claim the Bahá'í population of India to be 2.2 million], whereas the 1991 Indian census recorded a mere 5,575 Bahá'ís living there.

In answer to criticism that their religion is too small (in numbers) to deserve comparison with Christianity or Islam, Bahá'í literature notes that the World Christian Encyclopedia identifies theirs as the second-most widespread religion in the world (Christianity being number one and Islam, number three). Because nine adult Bahá'ís will form a local "spiritual assembly" but nine adult Christians or Muslims will usually not establish a church or mosque, Bahá'ís are often more visible than their numbers would suggest.

Another often-encountered statement is that the Bahá'í religion is the fastest-growing world religion, whose current obscurity is comparable to that of, say, second-century Christianity. The claim of course refers to percentile growth rather than the absolute number of new believers. Its veracity depends heavily on what the Bahá'í religion is compared to; denominations and small religions often find it easier to achieve rapid percentile growth than larger ones. Others note that the Bahá'í Faith, historically, grows in spurts, and and currently is growing very little or not at all (the high growth percentiles reflecting earlier rapid growth, spread out over a longer period of time).

Divisions

Bahá'ís view their sacred history in terms of "Covenants." A "Greater Covenant" encompasses previous dispensations and refers to the belief that each divine messenger promises a future divine teacher, a promise fulfilled by Bahá'u'lláh. A "Lesser Covenant" binds the major prophet and his followers. Examples of the latter would include Jesus's recognition of the primacy of Saint Peter and Muhammad's appointment of Ali as his successor, as per the Shi'a claim. In the Bahá'í case, Bahá'u'lláh wrote a document appointing his son, `Abdu'l-Bahá, as his successor; `Abdu'l-Bahá wrote a will appointing his grandson, Shoghi Effendi, as his successor; and Bahá'u'lláh, `Abdu'l-Bahá, and Shoghi Effendi all defined the future nature, functioning, and establishment of a worldwide elected governing body, the Universal House of Justice, in their writings.

Because of the clearly defined written instructions about leadership, efforts to split the Bahá'í religion have had limited success. Mainstream Baha'is note that none of the other Bahá'í divisions have attracted a significant following, and that many have disappeared. Of the several million Bahá'ís, all but a few hundred recognize the Universal House of Justice in Haifa, Israel (first elected 1963) as their religion's supreme body. Other splinter groups include:

• The Free Baha'i Faith — based on the claims of Ruth White who, after the 1921 death of `Abdul-Baha, accused Shoghi Effendi of having forged a will naming himself as successor. Iranians familiar with `Abdu'l-Bahá's handwriting and style rejected her arguments, even those who had opposed `Abdu'l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi. White's claims were revived during the 1970s by Hermann Zimmer, who organized this group. Also known as the World Union of Universal Religion and Universal Peace.
• The Orthodox Bahá'í Faith — accepts Charles Mason Remey as the Second Guardian (after Shoghi Effendi, their last point of commonality with the Baha'i mainstream), and Joel Marangella as the third.
• Bahá'ís under the Provisions of the Covenant — established by Leland Jensen, one of the followers of Mason Remey, who believed that Pepe Remey, Mason Remey's adopted son, was the Third Guardian (even though Pepe Remey rejected the claim). Apart from issues of leadership, this group differs from the majority of Bahá'ís in many areas of belief, most notably in its focus on and interpretation of Christian prophecy.
• The Reform Baha'i Faith — founded 2004 by Frederick Glaysher, who aspires to unite liberal, ex-, and "unenrolled" Baha'is under a common banner. Its activities are limited mainly to the internet.

For Bahá'ís, to accept Bahá'u'lláh while rejecting any of his clearly designated successors is "covenant breaking," one of the most grievous spiritual acts. The question of which claimant qualifies as the genuine successor is therefore a matter of profound spiritual importance. Members of different Bahá'í "denominations" are generally instructed not to associate with one another.

Some observers state they see the rise of Bahá'í fundamentalism in recent years. Baha'i tradition incorporates classic liberal emphases (such as feminism and race unity) as well as conservative ones (such as submission to authority). Outsiders are somewhat more likely to encounter the former. Because of the lack of nominations and campaigning in Bahá'í elections (which will be discussed later) the Bahá'í community exhibits few internal divisions, including a conservative / liberal split, and it is official Bahá'í policy to discourage the labeling of members.

Sect or religion?

Bahá'ís consider theirs to be an "independent world religion" whose relationship to Islam is similar to that of Christianity to Judaism, or of Buddhism to Hinduism. That is to say, while Bahá'ís recognize Islam as their parent religion, and the source of their basic theology and practice, they categorically reject a Muslim identity for themselves. Much Bahá'í literature insists on the religion's equal status with "other" major world religions (size notwithstanding). Terms such as "sect" are rejected on theological grounds as they tend to reduce the Bahá'í religion to a subset of Islam.

This perspective became normative under the leadership of Shoghi Effendi after 1921. Previously, some Bahá'ís of Muslim background saw themselves as Muslims, albeit of a special sect; whereas some early Western converts assumed the Bahá'ís to be an ecumenical group open to members of any religion. While a Muslim court in Egypt recognized the Bahá'ís as an independent religion in the 1930s, most Islamic authorities see them as apostates, former Muslims, and therefore worthy of death.

Because of its acceptance of the divine origin of the major world religions, the Bahá'í religion is often assumed to be an example of syncretism. In addition to Shi'i Islam, whose influence on basic Bahá'í theology and praxis is extensive, some secondary elements resemble aspects of Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism. This is partly by virtue of the societies in which the Bahá'í religion has developed, and is partly due to the personal backgrounds of its early converts. Outsiders sometimes claim to detect influence from Theosophy or Marxism. By contrast, few influences from Hinduism or Buddhism can be identified other than the names of Krishna and Buddha--figures who are regarded as divine messengers. (That Buddhists would disagree with this formulation is attributed to the corruption of the teachings given by their founders.) Bahá'ís recognize that their religion has elements from the previous world's religions, but point out that the same can be said of Christianity (which derives its basic theology from Judaism and some of its practices from Greek religion and culture) or any other religion, which must arise in, and interact with, a specific religious and cultural milieu. Bahá'ís see their religion as based on a divine revelation and subsequent divine guidance, where innovation involves the divine acceptance or rejection of existing ideas and practices.

The Bahá'í religion is sometimes treated as a New Religious Movement (NRM) by those who accept 19th-century movements as "new." As such it would be grouped with Tenrikyo or Caodaism--and indeed, constitutes one of the largest and most established of such groups. No other NRM claiming to be an independent religion can boast such a widespread and diverse body of believers.

Ex-Bahá'ís sometimes accuse their former religion of qualifying as a cult in the pejorative sense. A comparison with Mormonism is particularly apt. Both groups are open about their beliefs, boast more than 150 years of tradition (though with major changes), and are now led by institutions rather than charismatic leaders. Like Catholicism and Mormonism, both have expelled some dissidents and liberal scholars, and taken various steps to maintain the authority of its leadership and the perceived integrity of its teachings.

History

Baha'is conceive of human history in terms of prophetic dispensations of hundreds to thousands of years. For example, the dispensation of Christ is held to have lasted from 4 B.C.E. to 622 C.E.; than of Muhammad from 622 to 1844. We are now living in the "Baha'i Era," the "millennium" of Baha'u'llah which is to last at least a thousand years (until the appearance of the next prophet).

Within this dispensation, Baha'is distinguish between a "Heroic Age" of the religion (1844-1921) characterized by the ministries of the Bab, Baha'u'llah and `Abdul-Baha, and a "Formative Age" (starting in 1921) of institution-building. A "Golden Age" of world peace and unity is expected to arise in the distant future.

"The Forerunner," the Bab

The first figure was Mírzá `Alí-Muhammad. Born on October 20, 1819, in Shiraz to a well-known merchant of the city, his father died soon after his birth and the boy was raised by his uncle Ḥájí Mírzá Siyyid `Alí, who was also a merchant.

Upon reaching manhood, he joined his uncle in the family business, a trading house, and became a merchant. In 1842 he married Khadíjih-Bagum and they had one son, Aḥmad, who died in infancy. A contemporary described Him as "very taciturn, and [he] would never utter a word unless it was absolutely necessary. He did not even answer our questions. He was constantly absorbed in his own thoughts, and was preoccupied with repetition of his prayers and verses. He was a handsome man with a thin beard, dressed in clean clothes, wearing a green shawl and a black turban."

On the evening of May 23, 1844, when he was 24 years old, he invited a young religious seeker into his house and announced that he was the promised one of Shi'ite Islam. He took the title of "the Báb," meaning "the Gate," referring to the title of four successive spokesmen of the twelfth and last Imám of Shi'ite Islam. By taking such a title it sounded like he was claiming to be a spokesman or intermediary of the twelfth Imám, but in fact he gradually made it clear that in fact he was claiming to be the messianic return of that figure, whose advent was expected by some Muslims in that very year (which was the year 1260 in the Islamic calendar).

Gradually, the Báb attracted a group of followers. He also began to "reveal" texts, "reveal" referring to a process of rapid dictation--often as much as a hundred pages a day--which required a scribe to record. He sent followers out, armed with some of his texts, to preach his message throughout the Shi'ite communities of Iran and Iraq. Because his messianic claim contradicted the commonly held understanding that Muhammad was the seal of the prophets until the Judgment Day, the Báb's message was highly controversial. His followers were persecuted and sometimes killed and he was placed under house arrest, then exiled to government forts on the remote Turkish-Iranian border. But he was never denied writing materials and thus he continued to compose texts. Nearly two hundred are extant today, though some exist with various scribal variants. Among them are the Qayyumu'l-Asmá, a metaphorical commentary on the Qur'anic Surih of Joseph, and the Bayán or "Exposition," a book containing the laws and practices of the Báb's religion. A volume of extracts from his writings, Selections from the Writings of the Báb, was published in English in 1976. Among his major teachings was the advent of another messianic figure, "He whom God would make manifest," described as an even greater divine messenger than himself. Various texts seemed to suggest the new figure would appear in nine or nineteen years, though other texts were interpreted to suggest the advent was hundreds of years in the future.

In July 1850, the Báb was condemned to death for blasphemy against Islam (his claim to be a successor to Muhammad being the main evidence) and was executed by a firing squad in the city of Tabriz, Iran. By then his movement embraced several tens of thousands of followers. It was particularly popular among young Shi'ite seminarians and clerics and the urban middle class, though it did attract rural villagers, a few tribesmen, and some Turkish-speaking Shi'ites. A large number of the Bábís had previously been members of the Shaykhis, a small Shi'ite sect that had expected the imminent return of the Twelfth Imam.

The Bábí community, which was under increased persecution, turned to other leaders: the nineteen "Letters of the Living" the Báb had appointed and a titular head of the community, a young man named Mírzá Yahyá, who took on the title of Subh-i-Azal. Another figure of considerable informal importance was Mírzá Husayn-`Alí, titled Bahá'u'lláh (1817-92), son of a member of the Shah's court. Mírzá Yahyá was his younger half brother, lived in Bahá'u'lláh's house, and may have been appointed titular head of the community so that Bábís could consult Bahá'u'lláh without endangering him.

In 1852, two vengeful Bábís failed in an assassination attempt against Naserud-Din Shah, Iran's king. This led to a series of pogroms that produced the deaths of hundred of Bábís and drove the community to near extinction. Ultimately, somewhere between two and twenty thousand Bábís were killed for their beliefs, often via ingenious public tortures.

The Founder, Baha'u'llah

Baha'u'llah was one of those caught up in the general persecution of the Babis following the attempted assasination of the Shah. He was arrested on suspicion of involvement in the plot, all his extensive properties were confiscated, and he was confined in a pestilential subterranean dungeon for four months. But while there he experienced a mystical encounter with the "Maid of Heaven," an event that symbolically marked the beginning of his ministry as a divine messenger.

Cleared of all wrongdoing, Baha'u'llah was released from prison in December 1852, but to punish him for his involvement in the Babi Faith, he was ordered into exile. He chose to go to Iraq. He was accompanied by his family, including Mirza Yahya. After two years in Baghdad, Baha'u'llah retreated into the wilderness for several years, where he lived as a dervish. He returned to Baghdad and began to organize that city's Babi community and reestablished correspondence with the remnants of the Babi community in Iran. More and more Babis performed Shi'ite pilgrimage to the shires of the Imams in southern Iraq, then came through Baghdad to meet Baha'u'llah and receive his advice and encouragement. He also began to reveal texts in the same manner as the Bab. When the Bab's uncle came through Baghdad in January, 1861, and asked Baha'u'llah a series of questions, Baha'u'llah responded by composing the Kitab-i-Iqan or Book of Certitude--a 250-page book about Qur'anic and biblical prophecy, the relationship of the religions, and the spiritual development of the individual--in forty-eight hours. He also produced a short work of spiritual and ethical aphorisms, The Hidden Words. In response to questions posed by a Sufi master he composed The Seven Valleys, which talks about seven stages in the journey of the soul. The Four Valleys was a response to a different Sufi master and described the spiritual journeys of four different types of souls.

In 1863, the Iranian government petitioned the Turkish government to move Baha'u'llah farther from the Iranian border in order to reduce his influence in Iran. In response, Baha'u'llah was ordered to Istanbul, the imperial capital. On the verge of his departure, Baha'u'llah announced his claim to be the promised one of the Bab, "He whom God would make Manifest," thereby making public the status as a divine messenger he had already been expressing in his written works. Babis were invited to accept him as the divine successor of the Bab; over the next decade, the vast majority did so and became Baha'is. In Istanbul Baha'u'llah made contacts with many ambassidors, which enabled him to convey public letters to various European monarchs announcing his claim to be the Promised One.

After some months in the capital, the Ottoman government sent Baha'u'llah to further exile in Edirne, a small city in Turkey near the modern borders of Turkey, Bulgaria, and Greece. There, a rift opened between the supporters of Subh-i-Azal and Baha'u'llah. Subsequent strife led to the decision of the Ottoman government to exile Baha'u'llah and most of his followers to Acre (Akko in Hebrew, `Akka in Arabic), a small prison city in what is today northern Israel, and Subh-i-Azal and most of his followers to Famagusta, Cyprus.

Baha'u'llah spent the rest of his life in or near Acre. The first two years involved a severe imprisonment that resulted in the deaths of two of Baha'u'llah's followers and of his youngest son. Subsequently he was allowed to live in a condition of house arrest within the city walls, then in rented houses outside the walls. He devoted the remaining years of his life to meeting with Baha'i pilgrims, who spent months making the difficult journey to Acre, and revealing more texts.

His literary corpus eventually came to include some 15,000 works.

Baha'u'llah's writings cover the spectrum of traditional Iranian literary subjects and include Sufi maxims (e.g. The Hidden Words), interpretations of scriptural prophecies (notably the Kitab-i-Iqan, the "Book of Certitude"), and legal interpretations (the Kitab-i-Aqdas, discussed below). In addition he apparently contacted various world leaders, inviting them to accept his claims and commands. These letters are collected under the title Summons of the Lord of Hosts.

"The Master", Abdul-Baha

After Baha'u'llah's death in 1892, his son Abdul-Baha (1844-1921) became his successor. Early Western converts were under the impression that just as Baha'u'llah was God, his son Abdul-Baha must be the Second Coming of Christ. Abdul-Baha, however, disclaimed such a role for himself. Baha'is refer to him as "The Master" and as "The Center of the Covenant", and view him as the faithful servant of his father Baha'u'llah, an ideal model for Baha'is to follow. He is said to be infallible in matters of religious interpretation. A photo of Abdul-Baha can often be found in the place of honor in Baha'i homes. (Baha'u'llah's is avoided owing to the suggestion of idolatry.)

Thanks to the Young Turk Revolution, Abdul-Baha was able to leave Ottoman territory for Europe and America during the years 1912-1913. He spoke on various liberal causes of the day (racial amity, women's suffrage, Esperanto), to various audiences, many consisting of Western spiritual seekers interested in such things as Theosophy or Spiritualism. Kahlil Gibran drew his portrait at this time (and according to one account, considered becoming a Baha'i).

Among Abdul-Baha's writings and recorded speeches, Baha'is would be most familiar with Paris Talks, Tablets of the Divine Plan, The Promulgation of Universal Peace and Some Answered Questions. In addition, Abdul-Baha was the anonymous author of A Traveller's Narrative: Written to Illustrate the Episode of the Bab.

"The Guardian", Shoghi Effendi

In his will, Baha'u'llah named his son Abdul-Baha as his immediate successor--but further specified that after Abdul-Baha's death, leadership should pass to another son of Baha'u'llah, Muhammad 'Ali. Instead, Abdul-Baha excommunicated Muhammad 'Ali, and in his own will named as his successor, his (Abdul-Baha's) grandson Shoghi Effendi (1897-1957).

Each side excommunicated and vilified the other, calling on the new British government of Palestine to intervene in their dispute. At stake were not only spiritual honor but also property rights and access to gravesites. Mindful perhaps of Abdul-Baha's wartime support, the British government decided in Shoghi Effendi's favor. Muhammad 'Ali's partisans became known as Unitarian Baha'is, and are apparently no longer extant as a religious identity (their descendents having reverted to Islam).

Baha'is refer to Shoghi Effendi as "the Guardian" of the faith. Oxford-educated, his role was primarily one of translation (Baha'is view his translations, and interpretations of meaning, as divinely inspired) and management (for example, he organized a major wave of Baha'i missionary work). Critics point to Shoghi's authoritarian leadership style, which led him to expel numerous Baha'is including most of his family members (often for disobeying him in non-religious matters).

A dissident faction called the New History Society, which met in New York City, objected to Shoghi's attempts to control the Baha'i movement, as well as to his characterization of it as a religion (as opposed to an ecumenical gathering). Luminaries such as Albert Einstein and Helen Keller spoke at the society's meetings. Nevertheless, support for it dwindled, leaving Shoghi Effendi triumphant.

Shoghi Effendi's writings include The Advent of Divine Justice, The World Order of Baha'u'llah, and a historical work, God Passes By. He is credited as the translator of The Dawn-Breakers, also called Nabil's Narrative, a history of the Babi movement; critics allege that this understates his active editorial role. (The original Persian amuscript has never been released.)

The Hands of the Cause

Shoghi Effendi died without having left a will (which is, ironically, a duty for Baha'is). He had no children. A group of key supporters called the "Hands of the Cause" took charge of the religion, arranging for the 1963 election of the Universal House of Justice. While some Baha'is insisted that this institution was meant to function in tandem with that of the Guardianship, the Hands decided that there would be no future Guardians.

Later one of their number, Charles Mason Remey, decided that Shoghi Effendi had named him (Remey) as the Second Guardian. The result was yet another Baha'i splinter group--and later several more, as the "Remey-ites" disagreed as to who should be the Third Guardian.

The Universal House of Justice

Baha'u'llah's writings allude to one or several "Houses of Justice" which would arise in the future, and have authority over Baha'is (if not others). As interpreted by his successors, and inaugurated by the Hands of the Cause, the Universal House of Justice is an all-male nine-member executive, and the supreme authority of the Baha'i religion throughout the world. As an elected council, the House has avoided the succession crises which plagued previous Baha'i regimes.

The UHJ announces multi-year "plans", somewhat in the style of the former Soviet Union, which set forth its goals for that period. It also delivers progress reports in the form of its annual Ridvan and Naw Ruz messages. Baha'is are also likely to encounter the UHJ's pronouncements in the form of published documents and letters.

Governance

The Baha'i religion lacks a professional clergy (though some of its leaders and functionaries receive salaries), and is governed by its "Administrative Order" (AO), a hierarchy of elected councils. These include

• Local Spiritual Assemblies (LSAs) — the most basic level of administration, associated with such localities as towns, cities, or counties. These consist of nine-member councils which are elected annually, from among all local believers. For this reason the community which it represents must be able to muster a quorum of at least nine adult believers.

• National Spiritual Assemblies (NSAs) — similarly-conceived nine-member councils, with national rather than local responsibilities. Like LSA's, NSA's are elected annually, but by delegates chosen by LSA's, rather than directly. NB: Some NSA's represent "nations" which are now defunct, such as Hawaii.

• Regional Baha'i Councils — exist in certain populous countries such as India, as an intermediate level in between the LSA's and NSA.

• The Universal House of Justice (UHJ) — a global body, the religion's highest authority. Its members are elected every five years, by an electoral college consisting of all the members of each NSA. In contrast to other Baha'i bodies, only men are eligible for election to the UHJ. Its "Seat" (headquarters) is located on Mount Carmel, in a campus of neoclassical buildings and Persian gardens overlooking the city of Haifa, Israel.

Baha'i elections take place through secret ballot. Elections are decided on the basis of plurality. In the event of a tie, preference is given to members of minority groups within that region. Individual Baha'is are urged to vote for whomever they feel would be best for the role. They may not engage in campaigning, or even announce their candidacy; nor may they discuss with others the question of for whom to vote.

Once elected, the deliberations of Baha'i bodies are also kept secret. Baha'i tradition places great emphasis on consensus--not in the Quaker sense of waiting for agreement, but in the sense that dissenters are encouraged to respect the will of the majority. After a decision is made, all assembly members must support it for the sake of unity, regardless of what their earlier position may have been.

Critics charge that the system is deeply flawed and fundamentally unfair, notwithstanding its portrayal in Baha'i literature as an improvement over secular democratic models, and allege the following:

• The process favors incumbents in that, in the absence of a system of nominations and campaigning, dissatisfied voters will tend to scatter their votes. This is especially visible at the national and international levels, where voters cannot be familiar with many of the potential candidates. (Indeed, since the founding of the UHJ none of its members have ever failed to be re-elected, except through announced retirement.)

• Since the deliberations of such councils are secret – the bodies issue joint statements, never revealing such things as minutes or voting records – voters have little basis on which to evaluate individual leaders.

• The Baha'i leadership has been able to circumvent the ban on nominating candidates by promoting those whom it favors in Baha'i publications. Conversely, Baha'is not so favored by the administration, who nevertheless gain sufficient prominence to be elected on their own, may be arbitrarily eliminated--either by being stripped of their administrative rights (on the pretext they they are "gathering a following", for example), or by expulsion from the faith.

In addition to this hierarchy of councils, there exists a "staff" function--a bureaucracy--which advises the elected bodies. The UHJ appoints nine International Counselors, who direct Continental Counselors, who in turn appoint Auxilliary Boards (for the local and regional level), which appoint Assistants. Critics portray the appointed wing as a mechanism of control, analogous to the Catholic Inquisition.

Any Baha'i assembly has the right to expel individual Baha'is, or strip them of their "administrative rights" (such as the right to vote, or be elected). Outright expulsion is rare and typically involves challenges to the authority of Baha'i institutions. Removal of adminisrative rights is a more common community response to public violations of Baha'i law, such as a couple living together outside of marriage. Only the UHJ may declare Baha'i to be a "covenant breaker", which requires shunning.

Higher-level assemblies additionally have the right to suspend the operations of lower-level ones within their jurisdiction. During the 1980s, the NSA of the United States suspended] the LSA of Los Angeles, citing multiple reasons.

Beliefs

Baha'i literature often cites lists of core principles formulated by Abdul-Baha during his tour of Europe and America. The first three of this list are commonly referred to as the "three onenesses".

The oneness of God

The Baha'i religion is monotheistic. God's essence is said to be unfathomable. Revelation takes place only by means of his prophets, who have both human and divine aspects. This resembles Shi'i ghulat theories of the imams, as well as the Christian conception of the two natures of Christ. Many Muslims would reject the claim of such teachings to be monotheistic, since they appear to "associate companions" with God.

While God's essence may not be known, his attributes (or "names") may be known. These are likened to gems and include such divine qualities as compassion or wisdom, which human beings are urged to cultivate in their spiritual lives. Baha'is believe that our spiritual development in the physical world becomes a basis for judgment and advancement in the spiritual world, conceived as an endless expanse of ever-higher realms through which a soul may advance. "Heaven" and "hell" respectively refer to nearness or distance from God.

In an early writing, the "Tablet of All Food" (Lawh-i-Kullu't-Ta'am), Baha'u'llah adopts a Sufi-derived schema similar to that of Ibn al-'Arabi, to describe five levels between God and the physical world:

• Hahut — "He-ness", i.e. God in his unapproachable essence
• Lahut — roughly, "Divinity", the root being the same as the word for God (al-Lah Allah)
• Jabarut — the world of "Spirits" (ruh), or archetypes
• Malakut — "the Kingdom", the heaven of the angels
• Nasut — the human, mortal world.

The oneness of religion

Baha'is recognize a succession of prophets or "Manifestations" (mazhar). Besides the familiar prophets of the Bible and Islamic tradition – from Adam to Muhammad – Baha'is additionally recognize the divinity of Zarathustra, Krishna, Buddha, the Bab, and Baha'u'llah. The names of many prophets from the distant past are said to be unknown; others are to arrive in the far future, after at least 1000 years have passed from the time of Baha'u'llah. The Baha'i doctrine of progressive revelation holds that each successive prophet reveals a gradually more advanced teaching suitable for his times, thereby guiding human social and spiritual evolution.

Baha'i tradition distinguishes between the spiritual teachings of these prophets, which is said to be identical; and the social and legal provisions, which vary according to time (though apparently not geography). If religions appear to disagree with respect to metaphysics (e.g., Baha'is reject the theory of reincarnation), this is attributed to the corruption of the pristine, "original" teachings of their founders. (Like Islam, the Baha'i religion assumes religions to require founders.) Only the Qur'an, and the Babi and Baha'i scriptures are considered textually reliable records of the prophets.

Religions whose divinity is not officially recognized include Sikhism and Taoism. Confucianism is regarded as a secular philosophy, tribal religions are assumed to contain truth, but few specifics are given. Following Islamic tradition, the Baha'i religion accepts Sabeanism as a God-given religion, but is unsure of what to identify as Sabeanism.

According to Baha'i theology, Baha'u'llah represents the fulfillment of the millennarian expectations of various other religions. For example he is the Second Coming of Christ, the Mahdi and Qa'im of Islamic eschatology, the future Buddha Maitreya, and Shah Bahram, as well as "He Whom God Shall Manifest" from Babism. In that spirit Baha'is note that 1844 was the year of the "Great Disappointment" from Adventism, as well as marking the thousandth year after the occultation of the Hidden Imam.

Baha'u'llah urged his follows to "consort with the followers of all religions in a spirit of friendliness and fellowship" (Tarazat, second Taraz); and Baha'is have done so actively, taking part in numerous ecumenical gatherings. Belonging to more than one religion is, however, forbidden.

The oneness of humanity

Baha'i teaching emphasizes that humans are biologically one race, with racial differences seen as ephemeral or superficial. A common Baha'i expression is that of "unity in diversity", like a garden consisting of numerous species of flowers.

We are also said to be spiritually one, though as yet this often goes unrecognized. In the future the unity of humanity is to have a political dimension as well, with the rise of a world government. This development has been willed by God, and will certainly come about, thanks to the (often unseen) spiritual influences of Baha'u'llah and the Baha'i religion.

An interesting question is the extent to which Baha'i views on the unity of humanity subject to revision by science. For example, supposing that science one day embraces the sociobiological view that race differences are not superficial, or the perspective of game theory that our division into quarrelsome identity groups is inherent part of human nature, would Baha'is accept these conclusions?

The equality of men and women

The Baha'i religion explicitly champions the equality of men and women, making this one of its major principles. While its major figures and recognized prophets have been exclusively male, Baha'i history celebrates a number of prominent women including Tahirih (a Babi heroine, not actually a Baha'i), Navváb (one of Baha'u'llah's wives), Queen Marie of Romania, Bahíyyih Khánum (one of Baha'u'llah's daughters), Martha Root (a prominent Baha'i missionary), and Lidia Zamenhof (daughter of the Esperanto founder).

A number of provisions of the Baha'i religion discriminate on the basis of gender. Women may not serve on the Universal House of Justice, its highest body, and receive less compensation than men in the Baha'i intestate will (an inequality inherited from Muslim family law). On the other hand, in the event that Baha'i parents find themselves unable to afford to educate both sons and daughters, they are instructed to give priority to girls.

The elimination of all forms of prejudice

This provision is closely related to the Baha'i teachings on the unity of humanity, and the equality of men and women. Critics point to other "forms of prejudice" which the Baha'i religion has not sought to eliminate. Shoghi Effendi specified that the Baha'i religion is opposed to homosexuality, though Baha'is add that gays and lesbians ought to be treated with politeness and goodwill. Additionally, Baha'i antipathy towards Bayanis (remnant Babis) and the so-called "covenant breaker" groups may qualify as forms of religious prejudice.

World peace, under a world government

Baha'is expect the immanent arrival of "the Lesser Peace", in which world leaders shall (in the words of 'Abdul-Baha) "...establish a board of international arbitration; that from all nations and governments of the world there should be delegates selected for a congress of nations which should constitute a universal abitral court of justice to settle international disputes". Some older Baha'i literature suggests that the advent of the Lesser Peace would occur prior to the year 2000.

This is to be followed by "the Most Great Peace", a more distant time when "Warfare and strife will be uprooted, disagreement and dissension pass away and universal peace unite the nations and peoples of the world. All mankind will dwell together as one family, blend as the waves of one sea, shine as stars of one firmament, and appear as fruits of the same tree."

In 1993 the UHJ endorsed the U.S.-led alliance during the Gulf War, on the grounds that as a United Nations-approved military action designed to reverse Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, Operation Desert Storm fit the conditions specified by Baha'u'llah in the Lawh-i-Maqsud: "Should any king take arms against another, all should unitedly arise and prevent him."

A point which is debated within Baha'i circles, is that of whether Baha'i institutions such as the UHJ will constitute the future world government (at a time when most of the world's people have converted); or whether these will retain a purely spiritual function, serving parallel to secular institutions like the United Nations.

Since world unity is the primary theme of Baha'u'llah's dispensation, some Baha'is speculate that the mission of the next prophet may involve interplanetary unity.

Harmony between religion and science

Baha'is view conflict between science and religion as misguided, since "truth is one", and each discipline is reliable within its own sphere of authority. In Paris Talks Abdul-Baha says: "Should a man try to fly with the wing of religion alone he would quickly fall into the quagmire of superstition, whilst on the other hand, with the wing of science alone he would also make no progress, but fall into the despairing slough of materialism."

A certain tension can be observed between this sentiment, and the Baha'i attribution of varying degrees of infallibility to its major figures, whose writings occasionally touch on scientific subjects. Baha'u'llah, for example, stated that "every planet [has] its own creatures," a generalization which at this writing appears to be scientifically false. Abdul-Baha apparently denied that human beings evolved from animals. Shoghi Effendi viewed homosexuality as a curable disease, a position now generally rejected by psychiatry. Baha'is have reacted by reinterpreting the writings in ways which are more congenial with modern science; insisting that current science is wrong; or reconsidering the question of infallibility.

Does the Baha'i endorsement of "science" extend to secular scholarship in general, for example in the field of religious history? While a number of conflicts in this area have occurred – for example, over the number of Babi deaths in Iran (scholar Denis MacEoin suggests a figure ten times smaller than Abdul-Baha's "20,000") – the Baha'i presumption seems to be that conducted properly, scholarship can only bolster Baha'i theology. In a 1998 position paper, the Universal House of Justice laments the domination of secular approaches to "researching, understanding, and writing about historical events, and the elements of these methods which the House of Justice regards as being influenced by materialism."

Independent investigation of truth

The point of this teaching is that spiritual seekers ought not to be satisfied with the religion of their ancestors or upbringing, but should investigate various religions for themselves, ideally becoming convinced of the claims of the Baha'i religion. It is also related to the principle of harmony between science and religion, since a religious teaching contradicted by science is held to be irrational, and therefore unworthy of belief.

Critics point to various Baha'i policies which they say are inconsistent with this principle--among them the warnings against reading "covenant breaker" material, or the requirement to submit writings on the Baha'i religion for pre-publication censorship ("Baha'i review"). The response is that the "independent investigation of truth" applies to those who have not yet become Baha'is. Once one accepts the stations of Baha'u'llah and his successors, however, the Baha'i acquires a new obligation, namely to accept whatever these have revealed or commanded.

Universal compulsory education

Baha'i theology conceives of human spiritual evolution in terms of "education", with the prophets as teachers. Conversely, education is conceived in spiritual terms. Baha'u'llah wrote: "Regard man as a mine rich in gems of inestimable value. Education can, alone, cause it to reveal its treasures, and enable mankind to benefit therefrom."

Baha'i parents have a duty to educate their children (if they are able), a duty which is shared by Baha'i assemblies. Said education must at least include moral and spiritual instruction; reading and writing; training in a useful trade or profession; and in the universal auxilliary language, as soon as one is chosen. Baha'i writings also mention foreign languages, mathematics, science, technology, commerce, industry, the liberal arts, and religion as subjects suitable for study.

A universal auxilliary language

Baha'u'llah urged that the nations of the world, through representatives, agree on "one universal language and one common script". Baha'is believe that such a council will one day be held (though as a practical matter, interest in it seems to have waned somewhat).

While the choice of language is reserved to this committee, many early Baha'is including 'Abdul Baha favored Esperanto (or a reformed version of it). Baha'u'llah spoke highly of the Arabic language, without recommending it directly; while today English is also frequently mentioned as a candidate. For purposes of international communication, the religion's working languages are English and Persian.

Obedience to government, non-involvement in politics

Baha'is have an obligation to obey the government of the country in which they live, in all things except the renunciation of their faith (should this be commanded). They are forbidden to participate in partisan politics, on the grounds that partisan behavior contradicts the Baha'i emphasis on human unity. They may however accept appointment to nonpolitical positions such as judges, and are encouraged to vote in elections.

Faced with military conscription, Baha'is are instructed to request alternative service consistent with the principle of pacifism. Should this be denied, the principle of obedience to government then applies, and the Baha'i must accept military service.

Some dispute has occurred concerning the range of activities which qualify as partisan or political. For example, the UHJ has clarified that Baha'is may not take part in activities sponsored by Amnesty International or the World Council of Churches.

Elimination of extremes of wealth and poverty

In contrast with some varieties of Communism, Baha'is accept the necessity of private property, and inequality of wealth, urging only the establishment of progressive taxation and a social safety net. Though the details of these must await the emergence of future Baha'i governments, Baha'i literature rues the prevalence of a "materialism" which blinds societies to spiritual truths, such as the necessity of helping the poor.

Practices

As their main scripture--comparable to the Bible for Christians or the Qur'an for Muslims--Baha'is recognize a book known as the Kitab-i-Aqdas, Bahá'u'lláh's book of laws. The Aqdas represents a revision of Babi law, which in turn revises Islamic law (fiqh). In it, Baha'is are commanded to

• Recite an obligatory prayer each day. There are three such prayers, among which one may be chosen.
• Read from / meditate upon Baha'i scripture each day.
• Avoid backbiting and gossip.
• Engage in useful work. (This would include unpaid labor such as parenting.)
• Observe a nineteen-day sunrise-to-sunset fast each year from March 2 through March 20. (For adult Baha'is in good health)
• Abstain from alcohol and drugs, unless prescribed by doctors.
• Abstain from all sexual relationships outside of marriage. Marriages must be heterosexual and monogamous.
• Receive the permission of their parents (if living) in order to marry.
• Observe a "year of patience" prior to divorce.
• Abstain from gambling.
• Pay a religious tax of huququ'llah (the "Right of God", analogous to the Islamic zakat) consisting of 19% of their surplus net-worth (i.e. those things that they do not need to live comfortably) at least once in their lifetime, after the discharge of all debts.
• Make a pilgrimage (technically a "visitation") to Haifa and Acre at least once in their lives, if they are able.

While some of the laws from the Kitáb-i-Aqdas are applicable at the present time, others have yet to come into effect.

The observance of personal laws such as prayer or fasting, while a universal obligation, is the sole responsibility of the individual. Other laws may be enforced to a degree by the administrative order (such as laws on sexuality), while still others are dependent upon the existence of a predominantly Bahá'í society, which is expected gradually to come into being. For example, the Aqdas specifies that arsonists are to be punished by being burned themselves.

Socially, Baha'is are urged to meet for "feasts" every nineteen days, plus Baha'i holidays (when they are to avoid working if possible). These "feasts" consist of a spiritual portion (scripture reading), business portion (this may include fund-raising, or elections), and social portion. Outsiders are barred from the business portion, but may be permitted to attend the other portions.

Participation in various committees is considered an important aspect of Baha'i spirituality, since their work is seen as a precursor to a future world government. Another important Baha'i emphasis is fund-raising. (Contributions are accepted only from Baha'is, who are frequently reminded of this duty.)

"Deepening" consists of the devotional study of Baha'i writings (typically, compilations of extracts) by groups of Baha'is. In recent years, Baha'is have been encouraged to form and participate in Baha'i study circles such as the Ruhi Institute classes. These feature a series of thematic textbooks.

Places of worship

Most Baha'i meetings occur in individuals' homes, local Baha'i centers, or rented facilities.

Baha'i writings refer to an institution called a Mashriqu'l-Adhkár (Dawning-place of the Mention of God), which is to form the center of a complex of institutions including a hospital, university, and so on. Only the first ever Mashriqu'l-Adhkár in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan, was built to such a degree, but was seized during the 1917 Russian Revolution and later destroyed by earthquake.

Worldwide, there are currently seven Bahá'í Houses of Worship, basically one per continent, with an eighth under construction in Chile. These are nine-sided, domed structures which in several cases are noteworthy for their architecture.

Symbols

The official symbol of the Bahá'í Faith is the five-pointed star, but a nine-pointed star is more frequently used. The ringstone symbol and calligraphy of the Greatest Name are also often encountered. The former consists of two stars interspersed with a stylized Bahá’ (Template:ArB "splendor" or "glory") whose shape is meant to recall the three onenesses. The Greatest Name is Yá Bahá'u'l-'Abhá (Template:ArB "O Glory of the Most Glorious!")

Calendar

The Baha'i calendar is based upon the Badi ("Unique" or "Peerless") calendar established by the Bab. The year consists of nineteen months of nineteen days, with four or five intercalary days, to make a full solar year. Each of the nineteen months is given a name which is an attribute of God; some examples include Bahá’ (Splendour), ‘Ilm (Knowledge), and Jamál (Beauty). Bahá'í communities gather at the beginning of each month at a meeting called a Nineteen Day Feast for worship, consultation and socializing.

The Baha'i New Year corresponds to the traditional Persian New Year, called Naw Ruz, and occurs on the vernal equinox, March 21, at the end of the month of fasting. In addition, Baha'is observe 11 Holy Days throughout the year, with work suspended on 9 of these. These days commemorate important anniversaries in Baha'i history.

Persecution

Baha'is claim to be persecuted in various Muslim countries, especially Iran, whose government argues that they are a revolutionary, criminal, and heretical group with ties to Israel and other enemy nations. The United Nations and various human rights groups regularly condemn Iran's treatment of its unrecognized Baha'i minority.

Baha'i sources say that Iran has executed some 200 Baha'is. Most of these deaths occurred in the wake of the 1979 Islamic Revolution.The most recent execution was of Ruhollah Rohani (for proselytism) in 1998. Another Baha'i, Zabihullah Mahrami, died in 2005 while serving a prison term (for espionage on behalf of Israel). The Iranian government claims that family members, acting on orders from the Baha'i leadership, refused the offer of an autopsy, which would reveal the cause of death to have been a heart attack rather than abuse in prison.

Several holy places relating to Babism or the Baha'i religion have been destroyed. In 1993, a Baha'i cemetery in Tehran was bulldozed in order to build a municipal centre. In April 2004, Iranian authorities demolished the shrine and gravesite of Muhammad-Ali Barfurushi (Quddus), a Babi leader. The following June, the Tehran house of Bahá'u'lláh's father was destroyed.

Baha'is claim to have been barred from higher education in Iran. Prospective students must take an examination in religion, choosing from among four recognized religions. Baha'is complain that choosing the examination in Islam might be interpreted by Iranian courts as evidence of Islamic identity. In response, the Baha'i community of Iran organized an underground university, the Bahá'í Institute of Higher Education. It operated from 1987 until a government crackdown in 1998.

Baha'is complain of being subject to arbitrary arrest and detention. For example, 54 youth were arrested for proselytism in May 2006 in the context of a teaching activity (possibly religious in nature). All were released by the following month.

A 2005 letter from an Iranian military official refers to instructions by Grand Ayatollah Ali Khamenei to the effect that Baha'is should be monitored, with a view to suppressing their rights.[1]

Outside of Iran, the situation of Baha'is in Egypt received press attention in 2006.[2] There, the country's supreme court ruled that Baha'is do not have the right to identity cards bearing the name of their religion. (On Qur'anic grounds, only the three major Abrahamic faiths are recognized.) Whereas previously Egyptian Baha'is had been allowed to write in the name of their religion, or leave the line blank, the new system now compels them to either accept another designation, or forego identity documents. The Baha'i religion received recognition from the Egyptian government in 1925, but this was withdrawn by Nasser in 1960.

Internal controversies

In 1980 British academic Denis MacEoin quit the religion, complaining of a lack of freedom of speech and publication. At issue were his outspoken views (reflected in his dissertation on Babism, as well as numerous academic publications) to the effect that "received" Baha'i historical understandings are in error on many points.

In 1987, an unofficial Baha'i magazine called Dialogue (published by liberal Baha'is in California) submitted for "Baha'i review" (i.e. pre-publication censorship, required of Baha'is intending to write on their religion) an editorial by David Langness called "A Modest Proposal". The editorial urged various reforms, including the abolution of censorship as well as term limits for Baha'i leaders. The U.S. NSA reacted harshly, leading to the (voluntary) closure of the magazine.

With the advent of the internet during the late 1980s and early 1990s, several disputes arose] between Baha'is posting online, and Baha'i administrative institutions. One issue was that of whether material posted on the internet qualified as a "publication" requiring "review". Another was that of whether Baha'is could be punished, or even expelled, for their personal views. The UHJ later complained of a "campaign of internal opposition to its teachings [...] currently being carried on through the use of the Internet" by "persons technically trained in Middle East studies."

In 1996, the UHJ investigated six Baha'i participants on the internet mailing list Talisman, including Juan Cole, and John and Linda Walbridge (all academics with specialties in Islam). In the course of the invesigation, the six were threatened with disenrollment as covenant-breakers. Four of them including Cole, Langness, and the Walbridges, resigned their membership in the Baha'i religion. Others, notably children's author Michael McKenny, were expelled from the religion as a result of such conflicts. Some of these have retained a Baha'i identity as "unenrolled Baha'is." A prominent example is New Zealand poet Alison Marshall, expelled in 2000.

In 2005 Sen McGlinn was expelled from the faith, ostensibly for introducing himself as a "Baha'i theologian" in his book Church and State: A Postmodern Political Theology. The book's criticism of the Baha'i leadership may also have been a factor in his disenrollment.

In 2006 the U.S. NSA declared] a boycott of Kalimat Press, a Baha'i-oriented academic publisher run by Anthony Lee. Its objection was that Kalimat had published certain books (all of which, ironically, had passed Baha'i censorship) inimicable to the faith--including the aforementioned Church and State. The boycott quickly spread to other countries as well.The circulation of a petition protesting the decision led discussions of whether Baha'is are allowed to petition their institutions.

External links

• The Bahá'ís' Official site.
• Splinter groups:
  • The Free Baha'i Faith
  • The Orthodox Bahá'í Faith
  • Bahá'ís under the Provisions of the Covenant
  • The Reform Baha'i Faith
• The Baha'i News and Press Release Archives News reports mentioning the Baha'i religion, as well as press releases by it. Compiled by the Baha'i Association of the University of Georgia (USA). An important source of information on persecution of Baha'is.
• Baha'i Library Online, edited by Baha'i academic Jonah Winters. Collects voluminous material, both primary and secondary. Readers seeking the writings of Baha'u'llah and other Baha'i figures, for example, can find them here.
• H-Baha'i Home of the Occasional Papers in Shaykhyi, Babi, and Baha'i Studies and an academic discussion list.
• Baha'i Studies Personal site of critical ex-member Juan Cole. Contains archives of the original "Talisman" discussion group.
• The Baha'i Faith and Religious Freedom of Conscience Site by "Reform Baha'i" founder Frederick Glaysher, with many articles and documents critical of the Haifa group.
• Planet Baha'i. Pro-Baha'i general site now edited by Larry Curtis.
• Baha'i Vision Pro-Baha'i general site edited by Dale and Kathleen Lehman.
• Baha'is Online Baha'i news blog edited by critic Steve Marshall.
• Karen's Thoughts A personal blog by critic Karen Bacquet.
• Baha'i Rants An anonymous (and critical) personal blog.
• The Baha'i Truth A Muslim anti-Baha'i site by Mohammed Alam Qurayshi.
• The Baha'i Faith: Its History and Teachings Introduction to the religion by the late William McElwee Miller, a Christian missionary in Iran. Contains much material on splinter groups.

Selected bibliography

• Amanat, Abbas. Resurrection and Renewal: The Making of the Babi Movement in Iran, 1844-1850. Cornell UP, 1989.
• Cole, Juan. Modernity and the Millennium: The Genesis of the Baha'i Faith in the Nineteenth-Century Middle East. Columbia UP, 1998.
• Garlington, William. The Baha'i Faith in America. Praeger Publisher, 2005.
• MacEoin, Denis. Rituals in Babism and Baha'ism. London: British Academic Press, 1994.
• McGlinn, Sen. Church and State: A Postmodern Political Theology, Book One. Self-published, 2005.
• McMullin, Michael. The Baha'i: The Religious Construction of a Global Identity. Rutgers UP, 2000.
• Smith, Peter. The Babi and Baha'i Religions: From Messianic Shi'ism to a World Religion. Cambridge UP, 1987.

The Cole and Garlington volumes form part of the "Studies in the Babi and Baha'i Religions" series from Kalimat (general editor, Anthony Lee), currently 21 volumes.