Cosmetic surgery
Cosmetic Surgery (Aesthetic Surgery) is the field of surgery in which operations serve to improve appearance rather than to cure disease. "Aesthetic surgeons, in the normal practice of their specialty, routinely alter the otherwise acceptable physical form of the patient toward the arbitrary and stylized visages thought desirable either by the patient or by the community in general. [1]
Plastic surgery encompasses both cosmetic and reconstructive surgery. Although cosmetic surgery is traditional branch of Plastic Surgery, in most countries of the world, any physician licensed to practice any sort of surgery can legally perform cosmetic procedures.
Risks and benefits of cosmetic surgery
Smoking is especially deleterious for plastic surgery patients such as cosmetic surgery recipients, since cigarette smoke components are known to retard wound healing.[2]
The ethical surgeon will employ techniques of Shared Decision-making, which includes undertaking a frank discussion of the risks and benefits of cosmetic surgery with the patient, and then helping the patient to make a decision that serves the patient's best interests.
Human beauty : universal attributes
Symmetry
Cultural & ethnic considerations
Facial cosmetic surgery
Lips
In the 21st Century very full lips are considered to be so attractive that procedures to "fill out" the lips are among the most popular procedures requested of aesthetic surgeons. Not only are varous fillers injected into the lips, but traditional "cold knife' plastic surgery is used to give more lasting results than the fillers can currently provide. Mutaf M (2006). "V-Y in V-Y procedure: new technique for augmentation and protrusion of the upper lip". Ann Plast Surg 56 (6): 605-8. PMID 16721070. . All of these procedures are generally safe and effective in expert hands, but, interestingly,there was little demand for lip augmentation a generation ago. That's because the fashionable face was different then.Template:Fact
Whereas the actress Angelina Jolie (pictured left) is thought by manyTemplate:Fact to have nearly perfect feminine lips in 2007, the actress Grace Kelly was much closer to that ideal in 1967, at the time the picture to the right was taken. Both women are generally considered to be great beauties, yet each of them, as pictured in these photographs, might also be considered legitimate candidates for cosmetic surgeryTemplate:Fact.
In the 1960s, what are now considered beautifully full lips were then viewed as excessively thick lips.Template:Fact Rather than lip augmentations, surgeons concentrated on "lip thinning" operations to make the mouth appear smaller and more delicate.Template:Fact Lip reduction operations were a standard part of the facial plastic surgeons repetoire in the 1960's and 1970's, and were the cosmetic lip surgery featured in the plastic surgical textbooks of those times.Template:Fact Currently, as demand has changed, such procedures receive scant mention in the medical literature.Template:Fact
The changing standards of beauty over time should be discussed by cosmetic surgery candidates and their surgeons before undertaking permanent changes in physical appearance.
Noses
"Correction" of the ethnic nose
In the 19th and in part of the 20th century, a Northern European Caucasian nose of certain proportions was the one and only aesthetic ideal in the western worldTemplate:Fact. In the earlier portion of that period, outright discussion of the unattractiveness of semetic and negro noses was printed in both lay and professional publicationsTemplate:Fact. In the later portion of the 20th Century, wide and hooked noses were no longer so overtly labelled as a detrimental mark of ethnic originTemplate:Fact, but still, such features were routinely described as showing "deformities". Patients sought corrections of these attributes that surgeons were willing to provideTemplate:Fact.
"A 1996 manual Template:Fact describing procedures for altering ethnic noses, for example, indicates that correction of the "Jewish nose" requires "a classic rhinoplasty with lowering of the dorsum, narrowing of the bony pyramid, refinement and elevation of the excessively long hanging tip. Another recent manual, while refraining from explicitly using the Jewish nose as a diagnostic category, notes that 2 patients with noses that "have acute nasolabial angles, plunging tips, or foreshortened nasal tip pyramids" were "of Jewish ancestry" or of "Jewish descent." [3]
The recognition of beauty can change over time, as ethnic characteristics that were once seen as "ugly" because they were a mark of a difference that was held undesireable by the general society become appreciated as intolerance dissipatesTemplate:Fact. For example, the actress Jennifer Grey experienced a set-back in her career Template:Fact when she had a cosmetic rhinoplasty that changed her distinctive natural nose (with a delicate downward hook) into a more generic nose with a diminuitive button tipTemplate:Fact.
Surgical techniques
Weir incisions
Jaw lines
Whereas a square angle of the jaw is a mark of great beauty in both men and women of all races in the WestTemplate:Fact, in Asia, in women, the opposite is trueTemplate:Fact. A strong jaw, with a square angle, is traditionally viewed as unsightly. [4] [5]
Rejuvenation of the aging face
The removal of lax skin, resurfacing of sun damaged skin, and tightening of subcutaneous tissues and facial muscles can dramatically remove signs of aging with minimal risk and discomfort. Rejuvenation surgery is often combined with various types of skin resurfacing or dermal fillers. Reversal of a prematurely aged face can successfully raise self-esteem. [6].
Botulinum toxin
"What is so different about the injection of cosmetic botulinum toxin from other injections? Simply stated, neurotoxin injections are a surgical procedure—because the results depend entirely on the injector's knowledge of the underlying muscular anatomy and pharmacology as well as the principles of aesthetics." [7]
Dermal fillers
Laser resurfacing
Chemical peels
Body Recontouring
Breast augmentation and mammapexy ("lift")
Schwarzman E. Goldan S. Wilflingseder P. The classic reprint. Die Technik der Mammaplastik (the technique of mammaplasty). [Biography. Historical Article. Journal Article] Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery. 59(1):107-12, 1977 Jan. UI: 318746
Breast augmentation techniques and resultant shapes have been revised since the invention of the procedure in the 1960s. [8]
Medical consequences of breast augmentation
"Belly tuck"
Abdominoplasty
A 2003 study of abdominoplasty patients indicated significant improvements in body image, as measured by several different outcomes. There were no changes reported in self-esteem or other psychological components. [9]
Liposuction
References
- ↑ Isenberg J (2002). "The legacy of Narcissus". Plast Reconstr Surg 110 (7): 1815; author reply 1815-6. PMID 12447085.
- ↑ Bengtson B (2006). "Absolutes, beliefs, and preferences". Plast Reconstr Surg 118 (3): 798-9. PMID 16932193.
- ↑ Preminger B (2001). "msJAMA: The "Jewish nose" and plastic surgery: origins and implications". JAMA 286 (17): 2161. PMID 11694162.
- ↑ Satoh K (2004). "Mandibular contouring surgery by angular contouring combined with genioplasty in orientals". Plast Reconstr Surg 113 (1): 425-30. PMID 14707669.
- ↑ Lee D, Song C, Kim S, Lee Y, Cho B (2003). "A simple technique for reduction gonioplasty". Plast Reconstr Surg 111 (2): 951-2. PMID 12560737.
- ↑ Charles Finn J, Cox S, Earl M (2003). "Social implications of hyperfunctional facial lines". Dermatol Surg 29 (5): 450-5. PMID 12752510.
- ↑ Carruthers J (2002). "Caveat emptor (buyer beware)". Arch Dermatol 138 (9): 1243-4. PMID 12224991.
- ↑ Hsia H, Thomson J (2003). "Differences in breast shape preferences between plastic surgeons and patients seeking breast augmentation". Plast Reconstr Surg 112 (1): 312-20; discussion 321-2. PMID 12832909.
- ↑ Bolton M, Pruzinsky T, Cash T, Persing J (2003). "Measuring outcomes in plastic surgery: body image and quality of life in abdominoplasty patients". Plast Reconstr Surg 112 (2): 619-25; discussion 626-7. PMID 12900625.