Atheris: Difference between revisions
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imported>Jaap Winius (→See also: Added link to True vipers - Synonymy.) |
imported>Jaap Winius (Removed red links. Merged section "Related spacies" with "Taxonomy". General edits.) |
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| color = pink | | color = pink | ||
| name = ''Atheris'' | | name = ''Atheris'' | ||
| regnum = Animalia | |||
| phylum = Chordata | |||
| subphylum = Vertebrata | |||
| regnum = | | classis = Reptilia | ||
| phylum = | | ordo = Squamata | ||
| subphylum = | | subordo = Serpentes | ||
| classis = | | familia = Viperidae | ||
| ordo = | | subfamilia = Viperinae | ||
| subordo = | |||
| familia = | |||
| subfamilia = | |||
| genus = '''''Atheris''''' | | genus = '''''Atheris''''' | ||
| genus_authority = | | genus_authority = Cope, 1862 | ||
| synonyms = * ''Chloroechis'' - Bonaparte, 1849 | | synonyms = * ''Chloroechis'' - Bonaparte, 1849 | ||
* ''Atheris'' - Cope, 1862 | * ''Atheris'' - Cope, 1862 | ||
| Line 21: | Line 18: | ||
'''Common names:''' bush vipers.<ref name="SB95">Spawls S, Branch B. 1995. The Dangerous Snakes of Africa. Ralph Curtis Books. Dubai: Oriental Press. 192 pp. ISBN 0-88359-029-8.</ref> | '''Common names:''' bush vipers.<ref name="SB95">Spawls S, Branch B. 1995. The Dangerous Snakes of Africa. Ralph Curtis Books. Dubai: Oriental Press. 192 pp. ISBN 0-88359-029-8.</ref> | ||
<br/> | |||
<br/> | |||
'''''Atheris''''' is a | '''''Atheris''''' is a genus of venomous [[Viperinae|vipers]] found only found in tropical subsaharan Africa, excluding southern Africa.<ref name="McD99"/> Confined to rain forest areas, many members have isolated and fragmented distributions.<ref name="Mal03">Mallow D, Ludwig D, Nilson G. 2003. True Vipers: Natural History and Toxinology of Old World Vipers. Krieger Publishing Company, Malabar, Florida. 359 pp. ISBN 0-89464-877-2.</ref> In an interesting example of convergent evolution, they show many similarities to the arboreal pit vipers of Asia and South America.<ref name="SB95"/> Eight species are currently recognized.<ref name="ITIS">[http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=634419 ''Atheris'' (TSN 634419)] at [http://www.itis.gov/index.html Integrated Taxonomic Information System]. Accessed 18 March 2007.</ref> | ||
==Description== | ==Description== | ||
Relatively small in size, with adults ranging in size from 40 cm (''[[Atheris katangensis|A. katangensis]]'') to a maximum of 78 cm (''[[Atheris squamigera|A. squamigera]]'').<ref name="SB95"/> | Relatively small in size, with adults ranging in size from 40 cm (''[[Atheris katangensis|A. katangensis]]'') to a maximum of 78 cm (''[[Atheris squamigera|A. squamigera]]'').<ref name="SB95"/> | ||
All species have a broad, triangular head that is distinct from the neck. The | All species have a broad, triangular head that is distinct from the neck. The canthus is also distinct and the snout is broad. The crown is covered with small imbricate or smooth scales, none of which are enlarged. The eyes are relatively large eyes with elliptical pupils. The eyes are separated from the [[supralabials]] by 1-3 scale rows and from the nasal by 2-3 scales.<ref name="Mal03"/> | ||
The body is slender, tapering and slightly compressed. The dorsal scales are overlapping, strongly keeled and have apical pits. Laterally these are smaller than the middorsals. Midbody there are 14-36 rows of dorsal scales. There are 133-175 rounded ventral scales. The subcaudal scales are single and number 38-67.<ref name="SB95"/><ref name="Mal03"/> The tail is strongly | The body is slender, tapering and slightly compressed. The dorsal scales are overlapping, strongly keeled and have apical pits. Laterally these are smaller than the middorsals. Midbody there are 14-36 rows of dorsal scales. There are 133-175 rounded ventral scales. The subcaudal scales are single and number 38-67.<ref name="SB95"/><ref name="Mal03"/> The tail is strongly prehensile and can support the body while suspended from a branch or a twig.<ref name="Meh87">Mehrtens JM. 1987. Living Snakes of the World in Color. New York: Sterling Publishers. 480 pp. ISBN 0-8069-6460-X.</ref> | ||
Members of this group come in an amazing variety of colors and patterns, often within a single species. ''[[Atheris ceratophora|A. ceratophora]]'' and ''[[Atheris squamigera|A. squamigera]]'' are particularly variable.<ref name="WOAO">[http://www.kingsnake.com/atheris/overview.html The World of Atheris: Overview] at [http://www.kingsnake.com/ kingsnake.com]</ref> | Members of this group come in an amazing variety of colors and patterns, often within a single species. ''[[Atheris ceratophora|A. ceratophora]]'' and ''[[Atheris squamigera|A. squamigera]]'' are particularly variable.<ref name="WOAO">[http://www.kingsnake.com/atheris/overview.html The World of Atheris: Overview] at [http://www.kingsnake.com/ kingsnake.com]</ref> | ||
==Geographic range== | ==Geographic range== | ||
Found only in tropical subsaharan Africa, excluding southern Africa.<ref name="McD99"/> | |||
Some species have only isolated populations, surviving in small sections of ancient rainforest. This is a sign that they once had a much a much wider distribution, but have since been in declined.<ref name="SB95"/> | Some species have only isolated populations, surviving in small sections of ancient rainforest. This is a sign that they once had a much a much wider distribution, but have since been in declined.<ref name="SB95"/> | ||
| Line 43: | Line 40: | ||
==Behavior== | ==Behavior== | ||
All species are strictly | All species are strictly arboreal, although they can sometimes be found on or near the ground.<ref name="WOAO"/> | ||
==Feeding== | ==Feeding== | ||
| Line 55: | Line 52: | ||
==Venom== | ==Venom== | ||
Not much is known about their venom except that it is strongly | Not much is known about their venom except that it is strongly hemotoxic, causing pain, swelling and blood clotting problems.<ref name="SB95"/> Until recently, their venom has often been regarded as less toxic than that of many other species, perhaps because bites are uncommon,<ref name="Mal03"/> but this turned out not to be the case. There are now a number of reports of bites that have lead to severe hemorrhaging.<ref name="Meb98">Mebs D, Holada K, Kornalik F, Simak J, Vankova H, Muller D, Schoenemann H, Lange H, Herrmann HW. 1998. Severe coagulopathy after a bite of a green bush viper (''Atheris squamiger''): case report and biochemical analysis of the venom. Toxicon (Great Britain) 36(10):1333-40 ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=9723832&dopt=Abstract Abstract] at [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ NCBI]. Accessed 9 August 2006.).</ref><ref name="Top06">Top LJ, Tulleken JE, Ligtenberg JJM, Meertens JHJM, van der Werf TS, Zijlstra JG. 2006. Serious envenomation after a snakebite by a Western bush viper (''Atheris chlorechis'') in the Netherlands: a case report. The Netherlands Journal of Medicine, vol. 64 no. 5:153-6 ([http://www.njmonline.nl/njm/cntpdf.php?t=a&id=10000066 PDF] at [http://www.njmonline.nl/ The Netherlands Journal of Medicine]. Accessed 9 August 2006.).</ref><ref name="VR00">[http://www.venomousreptiles.org/articles/28 Bitten by a Sedge Viper!] at [http://www.venomousreptiles.org/ VenomousReptiles.org]</ref> One case was fatal.<ref name="Mal03"/> ''Atheris''-specific antivenin does not exist<ref name="SB95"/> and antivenins meant for bites from other species seem to have little effect, although ''[[Echis]]'' antivenin has been reported to have been of some help in a case of ''[[Atheris squamigera|A. squamigera]]'' envenomation.<ref name="Mal03"/> | ||
==Species== | ==Species== | ||
| Line 66: | Line 63: | ||
|- | |- | ||
|''[[Atheris anisolepis|A. anisolepis]]'' | |''[[Atheris anisolepis|A. anisolepis]]'' | ||
| | |Mocquard, 1887 | ||
|align="center"|0 | |align="center"|0 | ||
| | | | ||
|style="width:40%"|West | |style="width:40%"|West central Africa: Gabon, Congo, west DR Congo, north Angola. | ||
|- | |- | ||
|''[[Atheris ceratophora|A. ceratophora]]'' | |''[[Atheris ceratophora|A. ceratophora]]'' | ||
| | |Werner, 1895 | ||
|align="center"|0 | |align="center"|0 | ||
|Horned bush viper | |Horned bush viper | ||
|The Usambara and Uzungwe Mountains in | |The Usambara and Uzungwe Mountains in Tanzania. | ||
|- | |- | ||
|''[[Atheris chlorechis|A. chlorechis]]''<font size="-1"><sup>T</sup></font> | |''[[Atheris chlorechis|A. chlorechis]]''<font size="-1"><sup>T</sup></font> | ||
|( | |(Pel, 1851) | ||
|align="center"|0 | |align="center"|0 | ||
|Western bush viper | |Western bush viper | ||
| | |West Africa including Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, Benin, isolated locations in Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon. | ||
|- | |- | ||
|''[[Atheris desaixi|A. desaixi]]'' | |''[[Atheris desaixi|A. desaixi]]'' | ||
| | |Ashe, 1968 | ||
|align="center"|0 | |align="center"|0 | ||
|Mount Kenya bush viper | |Mount Kenya bush viper | ||
|Two isolated populations in | |Two isolated populations in Kenya: in the forests at Chuka, south-eastern Mount Kenya, and Igembe in the northern Nyambeni range. | ||
|- | |- | ||
|''[[Atheris hispida|A. hispida]]'' | |''[[Atheris hispida|A. hispida]]'' | ||
| | |Laurent, 1955 | ||
|align="center"|0 | |align="center"|0 | ||
|Bristly bush viper | |Bristly bush viper | ||
|Central Africa: DR Congo, south-west | |Central Africa: DR Congo, south-west Uganda, west Kenya. | ||
|- | |- | ||
|''[[Atheris katangensis|A. katangensis]]'' | |''[[Atheris katangensis|A. katangensis]]'' | ||
| | |Witte, 1953 | ||
|align="center"|0 | |align="center"|0 | ||
|Upemba bush viper | |Upemba bush viper | ||
|Restricted to | |Restricted to Upemba National Park, Katanga Province in eastern DR Congo. | ||
|- | |- | ||
|''[[Atheris nitschei|A. nitschei]]'' | |''[[Atheris nitschei|A. nitschei]]'' | ||
| | |Tornier, 1902 | ||
|align="center"|1 | |align="center"|1 | ||
|Great Lakes bush viper | |Great Lakes bush viper | ||
|Central Africa from east DR Congo, Uganda and west Tanzania southward to north | |Central Africa from east DR Congo, Uganda and west Tanzania southward to north Malawi and north Zambia. | ||
|- | |- | ||
|''[[Atheris squamigera|A. squamigera]]'' | |''[[Atheris squamigera|A. squamigera]]'' | ||
|( | |(Hallowell, 1854) | ||
|align="center"|0 | |align="center"|0 | ||
|Variable bush viper | |Variable bush viper | ||
|West and central Africa: Ivory Coast and Ghana, eastward through southern Nigeria to Cameroon, southern | |West and central Africa: Ivory Coast and Ghana, eastward through southern Nigeria to Cameroon, southern Central African Republic, Gabon, Congo, DR Congo, northern Angola, Uganda, Tanzania (Rumanika Game Reserve), western Kenya and Bioko Island. | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
''*) Not including the nominate subspecies (typical form).''<br> | ''*) Not including the nominate subspecies (typical form).''<br> | ||
<font size="-1"><sup>T</sup></font>'') | <font size="-1"><sup>T</sup></font>'') Type species. | ||
==Taxonomy== | ==Taxonomy== | ||
Other species may be encountered in literature, such as: | Other species may be encountered in literature, such as:<ref name="WOA">[http://www.kingsnake.com/atheris/index.html The World of Atheris] at [http://www.kingsnake.com/ kingsnake.com]</ref> | ||
* ''A. acuminata'' - | * ''A. acuminata'' - Broadley, 1998 - western Uganda | ||
* ''A. broadleyi'' - Lawson, | * ''A. broadleyi'' - Lawson, 1999 - Cameroon (East Province) | ||
* ''A. hirsuta'' - Ernst & | * ''A. hirsuta'' - Ernst & Rödel, 2002 - Ivory Coast | ||
* ''A. rungweensis'' - | * ''A. rungweensis'' - Bogert, 1940 - south-west Tanzania, north-east Zambia, north Malawi | ||
* ''A. subocularis'' - | * ''A. subocularis'' - Fischer, 1888 - Cameroon (Southwest Province), extreme east Nigeria | ||
Until relatively recently, the following species, all of which are terrestrial, were also included in the genus ''Atheris'':<ref name="Mal03"/> | |||
Until relatively recently, | |||
*''[[Adenorhinos|Adenorhinos barbouri]]'' | *''[[Adenorhinos|Adenorhinos barbouri]]'' - Loveridge, 1930 - south-central Tanzania | ||
*''[[Montatheris|Montatheris hindii]]'' | *''[[Montatheris|Montatheris hindii]]'' - Boulenger, 1910 - Kenya | ||
*''[[Proatheris|Proatheris superciliaris]]'' | *''[[Proatheris|Proatheris superciliaris]]'' - Peters, 1855 - East Africa | ||
Together with ''Atheris'', these four genera are sometimes referred to as the | Together with ''Atheris'', these four genera are sometimes referred to as the tribe Atherini.<ref name="WOA"/> | ||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
| Line 158: | Line 154: | ||
==External links== | ==External links== | ||
* [http://www.corallus.com/atheris/main.html Bush Vipers] at [http://www.corallus.com/ Corallus.com] | * [http://www.corallus.com/atheris/main.html Bush Vipers] at [http://www.corallus.com/ Corallus.com]. Accessed 18 March 2007. | ||
[[Category:True vipers]] | [[Category:True vipers]] | ||
[[Category:CZ Live]] | [[Category:CZ Live]] | ||
Revision as of 11:05, 18 March 2007
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Common names: bush vipers.[2]
Atheris is a genus of venomous vipers found only found in tropical subsaharan Africa, excluding southern Africa.[1] Confined to rain forest areas, many members have isolated and fragmented distributions.[3] In an interesting example of convergent evolution, they show many similarities to the arboreal pit vipers of Asia and South America.[2] Eight species are currently recognized.[4]
Description
Relatively small in size, with adults ranging in size from 40 cm (A. katangensis) to a maximum of 78 cm (A. squamigera).[2]
All species have a broad, triangular head that is distinct from the neck. The canthus is also distinct and the snout is broad. The crown is covered with small imbricate or smooth scales, none of which are enlarged. The eyes are relatively large eyes with elliptical pupils. The eyes are separated from the supralabials by 1-3 scale rows and from the nasal by 2-3 scales.[3]
The body is slender, tapering and slightly compressed. The dorsal scales are overlapping, strongly keeled and have apical pits. Laterally these are smaller than the middorsals. Midbody there are 14-36 rows of dorsal scales. There are 133-175 rounded ventral scales. The subcaudal scales are single and number 38-67.[2][3] The tail is strongly prehensile and can support the body while suspended from a branch or a twig.[5]
Members of this group come in an amazing variety of colors and patterns, often within a single species. A. ceratophora and A. squamigera are particularly variable.[6]
Geographic range
Found only in tropical subsaharan Africa, excluding southern Africa.[1]
Some species have only isolated populations, surviving in small sections of ancient rainforest. This is a sign that they once had a much a much wider distribution, but have since been in declined.[2]
Habitat
Rainforest regions, mostly in remote areas far from human activity. Some species are threatened by habitat destruction.[2]
Behavior
All species are strictly arboreal, although they can sometimes be found on or near the ground.[6]
Feeding
Atheris species have been known to prey upon a variety of small amphibians, lizards, rodents, birds and even other snakes. Some species or populations may specialize in eating frogs, but most have been described as opportunistic feeders.[3][6] Prey is typically ambushed from a hanging position, held until it has succumbed to the venom and then swallowed.[6]
Reproduction
All Atheris species are ovoviviparous.[5] Food may be refused during the African "winter" months of July and August. Mating takes place in September-November and the females give birth to live young in March and April.[7]
Captivity
A. squamigera is reported to do very well in captivity, needing only something to climb on and having no particular temperature requirements. Captive specimens take mice and small birds.[3] However, there have been reports of cannibalism.[6]
Venom
Not much is known about their venom except that it is strongly hemotoxic, causing pain, swelling and blood clotting problems.[2] Until recently, their venom has often been regarded as less toxic than that of many other species, perhaps because bites are uncommon,[3] but this turned out not to be the case. There are now a number of reports of bites that have lead to severe hemorrhaging.[8][9][10] One case was fatal.[3] Atheris-specific antivenin does not exist[2] and antivenins meant for bites from other species seem to have little effect, although Echis antivenin has been reported to have been of some help in a case of A. squamigera envenomation.[3]
Species
| Species[1] | Authority[1] | Subsp.*[4] | Common name | Geographic range[1] |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| A. anisolepis | Mocquard, 1887 | 0 | West central Africa: Gabon, Congo, west DR Congo, north Angola. | |
| A. ceratophora | Werner, 1895 | 0 | Horned bush viper | The Usambara and Uzungwe Mountains in Tanzania. |
| A. chlorechisT | (Pel, 1851) | 0 | Western bush viper | West Africa including Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, Benin, isolated locations in Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon. |
| A. desaixi | Ashe, 1968 | 0 | Mount Kenya bush viper | Two isolated populations in Kenya: in the forests at Chuka, south-eastern Mount Kenya, and Igembe in the northern Nyambeni range. |
| A. hispida | Laurent, 1955 | 0 | Bristly bush viper | Central Africa: DR Congo, south-west Uganda, west Kenya. |
| A. katangensis | Witte, 1953 | 0 | Upemba bush viper | Restricted to Upemba National Park, Katanga Province in eastern DR Congo. |
| A. nitschei | Tornier, 1902 | 1 | Great Lakes bush viper | Central Africa from east DR Congo, Uganda and west Tanzania southward to north Malawi and north Zambia. |
| A. squamigera | (Hallowell, 1854) | 0 | Variable bush viper | West and central Africa: Ivory Coast and Ghana, eastward through southern Nigeria to Cameroon, southern Central African Republic, Gabon, Congo, DR Congo, northern Angola, Uganda, Tanzania (Rumanika Game Reserve), western Kenya and Bioko Island. |
*) Not including the nominate subspecies (typical form).
T) Type species.
Taxonomy
Other species may be encountered in literature, such as:[11]
- A. acuminata - Broadley, 1998 - western Uganda
- A. broadleyi - Lawson, 1999 - Cameroon (East Province)
- A. hirsuta - Ernst & Rödel, 2002 - Ivory Coast
- A. rungweensis - Bogert, 1940 - south-west Tanzania, north-east Zambia, north Malawi
- A. subocularis - Fischer, 1888 - Cameroon (Southwest Province), extreme east Nigeria
Until relatively recently, the following species, all of which are terrestrial, were also included in the genus Atheris:[3]
- Adenorhinos barbouri - Loveridge, 1930 - south-central Tanzania
- Montatheris hindii - Boulenger, 1910 - Kenya
- Proatheris superciliaris - Peters, 1855 - East Africa
Together with Atheris, these four genera are sometimes referred to as the tribe Atherini.[11]
See also
- Viperinae.
- List of viperine species and subspecies.
- True vipers - Common names.
- True vipers - Synonymy.
- Snakebite.
Cited references
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 McDiarmid RW, Campbell JA, Touré T. 1999. Snake Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference, vol. 1. Herpetologists' League. 511 pp. ISBN 1-893777-00-6 (series). ISBN 1-893777-01-4 (volume).
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 Spawls S, Branch B. 1995. The Dangerous Snakes of Africa. Ralph Curtis Books. Dubai: Oriental Press. 192 pp. ISBN 0-88359-029-8.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 Mallow D, Ludwig D, Nilson G. 2003. True Vipers: Natural History and Toxinology of Old World Vipers. Krieger Publishing Company, Malabar, Florida. 359 pp. ISBN 0-89464-877-2.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Atheris (TSN 634419) at Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Accessed 18 March 2007.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Mehrtens JM. 1987. Living Snakes of the World in Color. New York: Sterling Publishers. 480 pp. ISBN 0-8069-6460-X.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 The World of Atheris: Overview at kingsnake.com
- ↑ The World of Atheris: Captivity at kingsnake.com
- ↑ Mebs D, Holada K, Kornalik F, Simak J, Vankova H, Muller D, Schoenemann H, Lange H, Herrmann HW. 1998. Severe coagulopathy after a bite of a green bush viper (Atheris squamiger): case report and biochemical analysis of the venom. Toxicon (Great Britain) 36(10):1333-40 (Abstract at NCBI. Accessed 9 August 2006.).
- ↑ Top LJ, Tulleken JE, Ligtenberg JJM, Meertens JHJM, van der Werf TS, Zijlstra JG. 2006. Serious envenomation after a snakebite by a Western bush viper (Atheris chlorechis) in the Netherlands: a case report. The Netherlands Journal of Medicine, vol. 64 no. 5:153-6 (PDF at The Netherlands Journal of Medicine. Accessed 9 August 2006.).
- ↑ Bitten by a Sedge Viper! at VenomousReptiles.org
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 The World of Atheris at kingsnake.com
Other references
- Broadley DG. 1996. A review of the tribe Atherini (Serpentes: Viperidae), with the descriptions of two new genera. African Journal of Herpetology 45(2):40-48.
- Freed P. 1986. Atheris chlorechis (West African bush viper): Herpetological Review (Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles) 17(2): ß47-48.
- Lanoie L, Branch W. 1991. Atheris squamiger: fatal envenomation. Journal of the Herpetological Association of Africa, Stellenbosch, 39:29.
- Love, W. 1988. Bush vipers (Atheris): Experiences in breeding and maintenance. Vivarium. 1(3): 22-25.
- Pareti KS. 1994. Cannibalism in a captive West African bush viper (Atheris chloroechis). Herpetological Review (Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles) 25(1):17.
- Pitman CRS. 1974. A Guide to the Snakes of Uganda. London: Codicote, Wheldon & Wesley, Ltd. 102 pp. ISBN 0-85486-020-7.
External links
- Bush Vipers at Corallus.com. Accessed 18 March 2007.