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{{Infobox Biography|
subject_name=Booker T. Washington|
image_name=BookerTWashington-Cheynes.LOC.jpg|
image_caption=A 1903 photograph of Booker T. Washington|
date_of_birth=April 5, 1856|
place_of_birth=[[Hale's Ford, Virginia]], USA|
date_of_death=November 14, 1915|
place_of_death=[[Tuskegee, Alabama]], USA|
occupation=Educator, Author, and African-American Civil Rights Leader
}}


[[Image:BookerTWashington-Cheynes.LOC.jpg|thumb|Booker T. Washington]]
[[Image:BookerTWashington-Cheynes.LOC.jpg|thumb|Booker T. Washington]]


'''Booker Taliaferro Washington''' ([[April 5]], [[1856]], – [[November 14]], [[1915]]) was an [[United States|American]] educator, author and leader of the [[African American]] community.
'''Booker Taliaferro Washington''' (April ], 1856, – November 14, 1915) was the leader of the African American community in the United States in the early 20th century. After his death his style of publicly accepting segregation, working with rich and powerful whites, and avoiding public protests came under attack by militant blacks.


Washington was born into [[slavery]] to a white father and a black slave mother on a rural farm in southwestern [[Franklin County, Virginia|Virginia]]; the slaves were freed in 1865. He attended [[Hampton University]] and [[Wayland Seminary]]. After returning to Hampton as an instructor, he was named in 1881 as the first leader of the new [[normal school]] (teachers' college) which became [[Tuskegee University]] in [[Alabama]].   
Washington was born into slavery to a white father and a black slave mother on a rural farm in southwestern Franklin County, Virginia; the slaves were freed in 1865. He attended [[Hampton University]] and Wayland Seminary. in 1881 he became the first head the new normal school (teachers' college) which became [[Tuskegee University]] in Alabama.   
   
   
Washington was the dominant figure in the African American community in the [[United States]] from 1890 to 1915, especially after he achieved prominence for his [[Atlanta Compromise|Atlanta Address of 1895]]. To many politicians and the public in general, he was seen as a popular spokesperson for African American citizens. Representing the last generation of [[Black people|black]] leaders born into slavery, he was credible when speaking publicly and seeking educational improvements for those [[freedmen]] who had remained in the [[New South]] in an uneasy [[modus vivendi]] with the white southerners. Throughout the final 20 years of his life, he maintained this standing through a nationwide network of core supporters in many communities, including black educators, ministers, editors and businessmen, especially those who were liberal-thinking on social and educational issues. He gained access to top national leaders in politics, philanthropy and education, and was awarded honorary degrees. Critics called his network of supporters the "Tuskegee Machine."  
Washington was the dominant figure in the African American community from 1890 to 1915, especially after he achieved prominence for his [[Atlanta Compromise]] of 1895. White leaders in politics and philanthropy recognized him as the spokesperson for African American citizens. Representing the last generation of black leaders born into slavery, he was credible when speaking publicly and seeking educational improvements for those freedmen who had remained in the New South in an uneasy second-class relationship with whites under the "[[Jim Crow]]" system of segregated schools and jobs. He built his leadership of the African American community nationwide through a network of core supporters, including black educators, ministers, editors and businessmen. He gained access to top national leaders in politics, philanthropy and education, and was awarded honorary degrees. Critics called his network of supporters the "Tuskegee Machine."  


Late in his career, Dr. Washington was criticized by the leaders of the [[NAACP]], which was formed in 1909, especially [[W.E.B. DuBois]], who demanded a harder line on [[civil rights]] protests. After being labeled "The Great Accommodator" by DuBois, Dr. Washington replied that confrontation would lead to disaster for the outnumbered blacks, and that cooperation with supportive whites was the only way to overcome pervasive racism in the long run. Although he did some aggressive civil rights work secretively, such as funding court cases,<ref>Meier 1957</ref> he seemed to truly believe in skillful accommodation to many of the social realities of the age of [[racial segregation|segregation]].<ref> Harlan (1983) p. 359 </ref>. While apparently resolved to many undesirable social conditions in the short term, he also clearly had his eyes on a better future for blacks. Through his own personal experience, Dr. Washington knew that good educations were a major and powerful tool for individuals to collectively accomplish that better future.   
Late in his career, Dr. Washington was criticized by the leaders of the [[NAACP]], which was formed in 1909, especially [[W.E.B. DuBois]], who demanded a stronger, more public line on [[civil rights]] protests. After being labeled "The Great Accommodator" by DuBois, Dr. Washington replied that confrontation would lead to disaster for the outnumbered blacks, and that cooperation with supportive whites was the only way to overcome pervasive racism in the long run. Although he did some aggressive civil rights work secretively, such as funding court cases,<ref>Meier 1957</ref> he seemed to truly believe in skillful accommodation to many of the social realities of the age of [[racial segregation|segregation]].<ref> Harlan (1983) p. 359 </ref>. While apparently resolved to many undesirable social conditions in the short term, he also clearly had his eyes on a better future for blacks. Through his own personal experience, Dr. Washington knew that good educations were a major and powerful tool for individuals to collectively accomplish that better future.   


Washington's philosophy and tireless work on education issues helped him enlist both the moral and substantial financial support of many [[philanthropist]]s. He became friends with such self-made men from modest beginnings as [[Standard Oil]] magnate [[Henry H. Rogers|Henry Huttleston Rogers]] and [[Sears, Roebuck and Company]] President [[Julius Rosenwald]]. These individuals and many other wealthy men and women funded his causes, such as supporting the institutions of higher education at [[Hampton University|Hampton]] and [[Tuskegee University|Tuskegee]]. Each school was originally founded to produce teachers. However, many had often gone back to their local communities to find precious few schools and educational resources to work with in the largely impoverished South. To address those needs, through provision of millions of dollars and innovative [[matching funds]] programs, Dr. Washington and his philanthropic network stimulated local community contributions to build small community schools. Together, these efforts eventually established and operated over 5,000 schools and supporting resources for the betterment of blacks throughout [[Southern United States|the South]] in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The local schools were a source of much community pride and were of priceless value to African-American families during those troubled times in public education. This work was a major part of his legacy and was continued (and expanded through the [[Rosenwald Fund]] and others) for many years after Washington's death in 1915.<ref> Anderson (1998) </ref>.   
Washington's philosophy and tireless work on education issues helped him enlist both the moral and substantial financial support of many philanthropists. He became friends with millionaired such as [[Standard Oil]] magnate Henry H. Rogers and [[Sears, Roebuck and Company]] President [[Julius Rosenwald]]. They funded his causes, especially in education. To upgrade the schools open to blacks Washington solicited millions of dollars, often using matching funds that stimulated local contributions. Washington's system established and operated over 5,000 schools and supporting resources throughout the South. This work was a major part of his legacy and was continued (and expanded through the [[Rosenwald Fund]] and others) for many years after Washington's death in 1915.<ref> Anderson (1998) </ref>.   
 
Washington was the central figure in improving the overall friendship and working relationship between the races in the United States, and heaqding off the "herrenvolk" racism of lower class whites expressed through lynching and led by [[Ben Tillman]]. His powerful autobiography, ''[[Up From Slavery]]'' (1901) was widely read among blacks and sympathetic whites.


Washington did much to improve the overall friendship and working relationship between the races in the United States. His autobiography, ''[[Up From Slavery]]'', first published in 1901, is still widely read today.


==Youth, freedom and education==
==Youth, freedom and education==
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===Henry Rogers===
===Henry Rogers===


A representative case of an exceptional relationship was Washington's friendship with millionaire industrialist and financier [[Henry H. Rogers]] (1840-1909). Henry Rogers was a self-made man, who had risen from a modest working-class family to become a principal of [[Standard Oil]], and had become one of the richest men in the United States. Around 1894, Rogers heard Washington speak at [[Madison Square Garden]]. The next day, he contacted Washington and requested a meeting, during which Washington later recounted that he was told that Rogers "was surprised that no one had 'passed the hat' after the speech." The meeting began a close relationship that was to extend over a period of 15 years. Although he and the very-private Rogers openly became visible to the public as friends, and Washington was a frequent guest at Rogers' New York office, his [[Fairhaven, Massachusetts]] summer home, and aboard his steam yacht [[Kanawha (1899)|''Kanawha'']], the true depth and scope of their relationship was not publicly revealed until after Roger's sudden death of an an [[stroke|apoplectic stroke]] in May 1909.      
A representative case of an exceptional relationship was Washington's friendship with millionaire industrialist and financier Henry H. Rogers (1840-1909). Rogers was a self-made man, who had risen from a modest working-class family to become a principal of Standard Oil, and had become one of the richest men in the United States. He met Washington in 1894 and Washington was a frequent guest at Rogers' New York office, his summer home, and aboard his yacht.  After Rogers dies Washington revealed that he had been quietly funding operations of 65 small country schools, and had given substantial sums of money to support Tuskegee Institute and Hampton Institute.


[[Image:BookerTWashington1909VAVWtour.jpg|left|275px|thumb|Handbill from 1909 tour of southern [[Virginia]] and [[West Virginia]].]]
===Jeanes and Rosenwald===


A few weeks later, Dr. Washington went on a previously planned speaking tour along the newly completed [[Virginian Railway]], a $40 million dollar enterprise which had been built almost entirely from a substantial portion of Rogers' personal fortune. As Dr. Washington rode in the late financier's [[private car|private railroad car]], "''Dixie''", he stopped and made speeches at many locations, where his companions later recounted that he had been warmly welcomed by both black and white citizens at each stop.  
Anna T. Jeanes (1822-1907) of Philadelphia in 1907 gave Washington $1 million to build schools in 1907.


Washington revealed that Rogers had been quietly funding operations of 65 small country schools for African Americans, and had given substantial sums of money to support [[Tuskegee Institute]] and [[Hampton Institute]]. He also disclosed that Rogers had encouraged programs with [[matching funds]] requirements so the recipients would have a stake in knowing that they were ''helping themselves'' through their own hard work and sacrifice, and thereby enhance their self-esteem.
[[Julius Rosenwald]] (1862-1932) was another self-made wealthy man with whom Dr. Washington found common ground. By 1908, Rosenwald, son of an immigrant Jewish clothier, had become owner and president of [[Sears, Roebuck and Company]] in Chicago. Rosenwald was a philanthropist who was deeply concerned about the poor state of African American education, especially in the Southern states.  
 
===Anna T. Jeanes=== 
 
$1,000,000 was entrusted to Washington by [[Anna T. Jeanes]] (1822-1907) of [[Philadelphia]] in 1907.  She hoped to construct some elementary schools for [[Negro]] children in the South. Her contributions and those of Henry Rogers and others funded schools in many communities where the white people were also very poor, and few funds were available for Negro schools.
 
===Julius Rosenwald===
 
[[Julius Rosenwald]] (1862-1932) was another self-made wealthy man with whom Dr. Washington found common ground. By 1908, Rosenwald, son of an immigrant clothier, had become owner and president of [[Sears, Roebuck and Company]] in Chicago. Rosenwald was a philanthropist who was deeply concerned about the poor state of African American education, especially in the Southern states.  


In 1912 Rosenwald was asked to serve on the Board of Directors of Tuskegee Institute, a position he held for the remainder of his life. Rosenwald endowed Tuskegee so that Dr. Washington could spend less time traveling to seek funding and devote more time towards management of the school. Later in 1912, Rosenwald provided funds for a pilot program involving six new small schools in rural Alabama, which were designed, constructed and opened in 1913 and 1914 and overseen by Tuskegee; the model proved successful. Rosenwald established the [[Rosenwald Fund|The Rosenwald Fund]]. The school building program was one of its largest programs. Using state-of-the-art architectural plans initially drawn by professors at Tuskegee Institute, the Rosenwald Fund spent over four million dollars to help build 4,977 schools, 217 teachers' homes, and 163 shop buildings in 883 counties in 15 states, from Maryland to Texas.<ref> See [http://www.nationaltrust.org/news/docs/20020606_rosenwald.html], </ref>  The Rosenwald Fund used a system of [[matching funds|matching grants]], and black communities raised more than $4.7 million to aid the construction.<ref> See  [http://ford.claiborneone.org/]</ref> These schools became known as [[Rosenwald Schools]]. By 1932, the facilities could accommodate one third of all African American children in Southern U.S. schools.
In 1912 Rosenwald was asked to serve on the Board of Directors of Tuskegee Institute, a position he held for the remainder of his life. Rosenwald endowed Tuskegee so that Dr. Washington could spend less time traveling to seek funding and devote more time towards management of the school. Later in 1912, Rosenwald provided funds for a pilot program involving six new small schools in rural Alabama, which were designed, constructed and opened in 1913 and 1914 and overseen by Tuskegee; the model proved successful. Rosenwald established the [[Rosenwald Fund|The Rosenwald Fund]]. The school building program was one of its largest programs. Using state-of-the-art architectural plans initially drawn by professors at Tuskegee Institute, the Rosenwald Fund spent over four million dollars to help build 4,977 schools, 217 teachers' homes, and 163 shop buildings in 883 counties in 15 states, from Maryland to Texas.<ref> See [http://www.nationaltrust.org/news/docs/20020606_rosenwald.html], </ref>  The Rosenwald Fund used a system of [[matching funds|matching grants]], and black communities raised more than $4.7 million to aid the construction.<ref> See  [http://ford.claiborneone.org/]</ref> These schools became known as [[Rosenwald Schools]]. By 1932, the facilities could accommodate one third of all African American children in Southern U.S. schools.
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His death was thought at the time to have been a result of [[Heart failure|congestive heart failure]], aggravated by overwork. In March of 2006, with the permission of his descendants, examination of medical records indicated that he died of [[hypertension]], with a [[blood pressure]] more than twice normal, confirming what had long been suspected.   
His death was thought at the time to have been a result of [[Heart failure|congestive heart failure]], aggravated by overwork. In March of 2006, with the permission of his descendants, examination of medical records indicated that he died of [[hypertension]], with a [[blood pressure]] more than twice normal, confirming what had long been suspected.   


At his death Tuskegee's endowment exceeded US$1.5 million. His greatest life's work, the work of education of blacks in the South, was well underway and expanding.
At his death Tuskegee's endowment exceeded $1.5 million.  


==Honors and memorials==
==Honors and memorials==
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In 1934, [[Robert Russa Moton]], Washington's successor as president of Tuskegee University, arranged an air tour for two African Americans aviators, and afterward the plane was christened the ''Booker T. Washington''.
In 1934, [[Robert Russa Moton]], Washington's successor as president of Tuskegee University, arranged an air tour for two African Americans aviators, and afterward the plane was christened the ''Booker T. Washington''.


On [[April 7]], [[1940]], Dr. Washington became the first African American to be depicted on a United States postage stamp. The first coin to feature an African American was the Booker T. Washington Memorial Half Dollar that was minted by the United States from 1946 to 1951.
In 1940 Washington became the first African American to be depicted on a United States postage stamp. The first coin to feature an African American was the Booker T. Washington Memorial Half Dollar that was minted by the U.S. from 1946 to 1951.


On [[April 5]], [[1956]], the hundredth anniversary of Washington's birth, the house where he was born in [[Franklin County, Virginia]] was designated as the [[Booker T. Washington National Monument]]. A state park in [[Chattanooga, Tennessee]] was named in his honor, as was a bridge spanning the [[Hampton River]] adjacent to his alma mater, Hampton University.
On [[April 5]], [[1956]], the hundredth anniversary of Washington's birth, the house where he was born in Virginia was designated as the [[Booker T. Washington National Monument]]. A state park in [[Chattanooga, Tennessee]] was named in his honor, as was a bridge spanning the Hampton River adjacent to his alma mater, Hampton University.


In 1984, Hampton University dedicated a Booker T. Washington Memorial on campus near the historic[[Emancipation Oak]], establishing, in the words of the University, "a relationship between one of America's great educators and social activists, and the symbol of Black achievement in education."<ref> See [http://www.edhamiltonworks.com/booker_t_washington.htm]</ref>
In 1984, Hampton University dedicated a Booker T. Washington Memorial on campus near the historic[[Emancipation Oak]], establishing, in the words of the University, "a relationship between one of America's great educators and social activists, and the symbol of Black achievement in education."<ref> See [http://www.edhamiltonworks.com/booker_t_washington.htm]</ref>
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:"He lifted the veil of ignorance from his people and pointed the way to progress through education and industry."
:"He lifted the veil of ignorance from his people and pointed the way to progress through education and industry."


==Quotes==
==Bivliography==
{{wikiquote}}
*"I will let no man drag me down so low as to make me hate him."
*"One man cannot hold another man down in the ditch without remaining down in the ditch with him." [http://search.barnesandnoble.com/booksearch/isbninquiry.asp?z=y&ean=9781576737866&displayonly=CHP]
 
*"It is at the bottom of life we must begin, not at the top."
*"Think about it: We went into slavery pagans; we came out Christians. We went into slavery pieces of property; we came out American citizens. We went into slavery with chains clanking about our wrists; we came out with the American ballot in our hands...Notwithstanding the cruelty and moral wrong of slavery, we are in a stronger and more hopeful condition, materially, intellectually, morally, and religiously, than is true of an equal number of black people in any other portion of the globe." - in ''Up From Slavery''
 
*"There is another class of colored people who make a business of keeping the troubles, the wrongs, and the hardships of the Negro race before the public. Having learned that they are able to make a living out of their troubles, they have grown into the settled habit of advertising their wrongs -- partly because they want sympathy and partly because it pays. Some of these people do not want the Negro to lose his grievances, because they do not want to lose their jobs....There is a certain class of race-problem solvers who do not want the patient to get well, because as long as the disease holds out they have not only an easy means of making a living, but also an easy medium through which to make themselves prominent before the public."
 
*"Even then I had a strong feeling that what our people most needed was to get a foundation in education, industry, and property, and for this I felt that they could better afford to strive than for political preferment." - in ''Up From Slavery''
 
*"My experience has been that the time to test a true gentleman is to observe him when he is in contact with individuals of a race that is less fortunate than his own." - in ''Up From Slavery''
 
*"I will not say that [I] became discouraged, for as I now look back over my life I do not recall that I ever became discouraged over anything that I set out to accomplish. I have begun everything with the idea that I could succeed, and I never had much patience with the multitudes of people who are always ready to explain why one cannot succeed." - in ''Up From Slavery''
 
*"I have spoken of my admiration for General Armstrong, and yet he was but a type of that Christlike body of men and women who went into the Negro schools at the close of the war by the hundreds to assist in lifting up my race. The history of the world fails to show a higher, purer, and more unselfish class of men and women than those who found their way into those Negro schools." - in ''Up From Slavery''
 
*"Excellence is to do a common thing in an uncommon way."
 
"In all things that are purely social we can be as separate as the fingers, yet one as the hand in all things essential to mutual progress." - from the seminal "Atlanta Compromise" address of 1895.
http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/39/
 
==References==
===Primary sources===
===Primary sources===
* Washington, Booker T. ''The Awakening of the Negro,'' The Atlantic Monthly, 78 (September, 1896).
* Washington, Booker T. ''The Awakening of the Negro,'' The Atlantic Monthly, 78 (September, 1896).
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*[http://www.aliciapatterson.org/APF2004/Granat/Granat.html Diane Granat, Saving the Rosenwald Schools]
*[http://www.aliciapatterson.org/APF2004/Granat/Granat.html Diane Granat, Saving the Rosenwald Schools]
*[http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/DUBOIS/ch03.html A Criticism of the Atlanta Compromise by W.E.B. Dubois]
*[http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/DUBOIS/ch03.html A Criticism of the Atlanta Compromise by W.E.B. Dubois]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Washington, Booker T.}}
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|NAME=Washington, Booker T.
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Washington, Booker Taliaferro
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=educator
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[April 5]], [[1856]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Hale's Ford]], [[Franklin County, Virginia]], [[United States of America]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[November 15]], [[1915]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Tuskegee, Alabama]], [[United States of America]]
}}
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[[Category:African Americans]]
[[Category:Alabama writers]]
[[Category:American slaves]]
[[Category:American educators]]
[[Category:Hampton University alumni]]
[[Category:People from Alabama]]
[[Category:People from West Virginia]]
[[Category:People from Virginia]]
[[Category:Tuskegee University]]
[[Category:West Virginia writers]]
[[Category:Virginia writers]]
[[Category:Deaths from cardiovascular disease]]
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[[Category:1915 deaths]]
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Revision as of 15:12, 12 April 2007

Booker T. Washington

Booker Taliaferro Washington (April ], 1856, – November 14, 1915) was the leader of the African American community in the United States in the early 20th century. After his death his style of publicly accepting segregation, working with rich and powerful whites, and avoiding public protests came under attack by militant blacks.

Washington was born into slavery to a white father and a black slave mother on a rural farm in southwestern Franklin County, Virginia; the slaves were freed in 1865. He attended Hampton University and Wayland Seminary. in 1881 he became the first head the new normal school (teachers' college) which became Tuskegee University in Alabama.

Washington was the dominant figure in the African American community from 1890 to 1915, especially after he achieved prominence for his Atlanta Compromise of 1895. White leaders in politics and philanthropy recognized him as the spokesperson for African American citizens. Representing the last generation of black leaders born into slavery, he was credible when speaking publicly and seeking educational improvements for those freedmen who had remained in the New South in an uneasy second-class relationship with whites under the "Jim Crow" system of segregated schools and jobs. He built his leadership of the African American community nationwide through a network of core supporters, including black educators, ministers, editors and businessmen. He gained access to top national leaders in politics, philanthropy and education, and was awarded honorary degrees. Critics called his network of supporters the "Tuskegee Machine."

Late in his career, Dr. Washington was criticized by the leaders of the NAACP, which was formed in 1909, especially W.E.B. DuBois, who demanded a stronger, more public line on civil rights protests. After being labeled "The Great Accommodator" by DuBois, Dr. Washington replied that confrontation would lead to disaster for the outnumbered blacks, and that cooperation with supportive whites was the only way to overcome pervasive racism in the long run. Although he did some aggressive civil rights work secretively, such as funding court cases,[1] he seemed to truly believe in skillful accommodation to many of the social realities of the age of segregation.[2]. While apparently resolved to many undesirable social conditions in the short term, he also clearly had his eyes on a better future for blacks. Through his own personal experience, Dr. Washington knew that good educations were a major and powerful tool for individuals to collectively accomplish that better future.

Washington's philosophy and tireless work on education issues helped him enlist both the moral and substantial financial support of many philanthropists. He became friends with millionaired such as Standard Oil magnate Henry H. Rogers and Sears, Roebuck and Company President Julius Rosenwald. They funded his causes, especially in education. To upgrade the schools open to blacks Washington solicited millions of dollars, often using matching funds that stimulated local contributions. Washington's system established and operated over 5,000 schools and supporting resources throughout the South. This work was a major part of his legacy and was continued (and expanded through the Rosenwald Fund and others) for many years after Washington's death in 1915.[3].

Washington was the central figure in improving the overall friendship and working relationship between the races in the United States, and heaqding off the "herrenvolk" racism of lower class whites expressed through lynching and led by Ben Tillman. His powerful autobiography, Up From Slavery (1901) was widely read among blacks and sympathetic whites.


Youth, freedom and education

File:Btw.JPG
Booker T. Washington with third wife Margaret James Murray and his two sons.

Booker T. Washington was born on April 5 1856 on the Burroughs farm at the community of Hale's Ford, Virginia. His mother Jane was a black slave who worked as a cook and his father was a white man who owned a nearby farm. Under the laws of the time, his mother's status also made young Booker a slave. The "T" in his name stood for Taliaferro, his owner's name. He recalled Emancipation in early 1865: [Up from Slavery 19-21]

As the great day drew nearer, there was more singing in the slave quarters than usual. It was bolder, had more ring, and lasted later into the night. Most of the verses of the plantation songs had some reference to freedom.... Some man who seemed to be a stranger (a United States officer, I presume) made a little speech and then read a rather long paper -- the Emancipation Proclamation, I think. After the reading we were told that we were all free, and could go when and where we pleased. My mom, who was standing by my side, leaned over and kissed her children, while tears of joy ran down her cheeks. She explained to us what it all meant, that this was the day for which she had been so long praying, but fearing that she would never live to see.

In the summer of 1865, at the age of nine, Booker and his brother John and his sister, Amanda, moved to Malden in Kanawha County, West Virginia with their mother to join his stepfather, whose last name was Washington. He worked with his mother and other free blacks as a salt-packer and in a coal mine. He even signed up briefly as a hired hand on a steamboat. However, soon he became employed as a houseboy for Viola Ruffner (née Knapp), the wife of General Lewis Ruffner, who owned the salt-furnace and coal mine. Many other houseboys had failed to satisfy the demanding and methodical Mrs. Ruffner, but Booker's diligence and attention to detail met her standards. Encouraged to do so by Mrs. Ruffner, when he could, young Booker attended school and learned to read and to write. And soon, he sought even more education than was available in his community.[4].

Leaving Malden at sixteen, Washington enrolled at the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute, in Hampton, Virginia. Students with little income such as Washington could get a place there by working to pay their way. The normal school (teachers college) at Hampton was founded for the purpose of training black teachers and had been largely funded by church groups and individuals such as William Jackson Palmer, a Quaker, among others. In many ways he was back where he had started, earning a living through menial tasks, but his time at Hampton led him away from a life of labor. From 1878 to 1879 he attended Wayland Seminary in Washington, D.C., and returned to teach at Hampton. Soon, Hampton officials recommended him to become the first principal of a similar school being founded in Alabama.[5].


Tuskegee

Lewis Adams and other organizers of a new normal school in Tuskegee, Alabama found the energetic and visionary leader they sought in 25 year-old Booker T. Washington. Upon the strong recommendation of Hampton University founder Samuel C. Armstrong, Adams and Tuskegee's governing body hired Washington, even though such positions had always been held by whites up until that time. Washington thus became the first principal of the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute. The new school opened on July 4, 1881, initially using space rented from a local church. The next year, Washington purchased a former plantation, which became the permanent site of the campus. The school later grew to become the present-day Tuskegee University.[6].


Tuskegee provided an academic education and instruction for teachers, but placed more emphasis on providing young black boys with practical skills such as carpentry and masonry. The institute illustrates Washington's aspirations for his race. His theory was, that by providing these skills, African Americans would play their part in society and this would lead to acceptance by white Americans. He believed that African Americans would eventually gain full civil rights by showing themselves to be responsible, reliable American citizens. He was head of the school until his death in 1915. By then Tuskegee's endowment had grown to over $1.5 million, compared to the initial $2,000 annual appropriation.[7].


Family

Booker T. Washington's house at Tuskegee University

Washington was married three times. In his autobiography Up From Slavery, he gave all three of his wives enormous credit for their work at Tuskegee and was emphatic that he would not have been successful without them.

Fannie N. Smith was from Malden, West Virginia, the same Kanawha River Valley town located eight miles upriver from Charleston where Washington had lived from age nine to sixteen (and maintained ties throughout his later life). Washington and Smith were married in the summer of 1882. They had one child, Portia M. Washington. Fannie died in May 1884.[8].


Washington next wed Olivia A. Davidson in 1885. Davidson was born in Ohio, spent time teaching in Mississippi and Tennessee and received her education at Hampton Institute and the Massachusetts State Normal School at Framingham. Washington met Davidson at Tuskegee, where she had come to teach. She later became the assistant principal there. They had two sons, Booker T. Washington Jr. and Ernest Davidson Washington, before she died in 1889.

Washington's third marriage took place in 1893 to Margaret James Murray. She was from Mississippi and was a graduate of Fisk University. They had no children together. Murray outlived Washington and died in 1925.

Politics

Washington's 1895 Atlanta Compromise address, given at the Cotton States and International Exposition in Atlanta, Georgia, was widely welcomed in the African American community and among liberal whites North and South. He was supported by W.E.B. DuBois at the time but several years later the two had a falling out. Washington valued the "industrial" education oriented toward actual jobs available to the majority of African Americans at the time and DuBois demanded a "classical" liberal arts education among an elite he called The Talented Tenth. Both sides sought to define the best means to improve the conditions of the post-Civil War African-American community. It should be noted, however, that despite not condemning Jim Crow laws and the inhumanity of lynching publicly, Washington privately contributed funds for legal challenges against segregation and disfranchisement, such as his support in the case of Giles v. Harris, which went before the United States Supreme Court in 1903.[9].

Blacks were solidly Republican, but after 1890 many lost the vote in the deep South (but continued to vote in border and northern states). Washington emerged as their spokesman and was routinely consulted by Republican national about the appointment of African Americans to political positions throughout the nation. He worked and socialized with many white politicians and notables. He argued that the surest way for blacks eventually to gain equal rights was to demonstrate patience, industry, thrift, and usefulness and said that these were the key to improved conditions for African Americans in the United States and that they could not expect too much, having only just been granted emancipation.[10].

Wealthy friends and benefactors

Washington associated with the richest and most powerful businessmen and politicians of the era. He was seen as a spokesperson for African Americans and became a conduit for funding educational programs. His contacts included such diverse and well-known personages as Andrew Carnegie, William Howard Taft, Henry Huttleston Rogers, and Julius Rosenwald, to whom he made the need for better educational facilities well-known. As a result, countless small schools were established through his efforts, in programs that continued many years after his death.

Henry Rogers

A representative case of an exceptional relationship was Washington's friendship with millionaire industrialist and financier Henry H. Rogers (1840-1909). Rogers was a self-made man, who had risen from a modest working-class family to become a principal of Standard Oil, and had become one of the richest men in the United States. He met Washington in 1894 and Washington was a frequent guest at Rogers' New York office, his summer home, and aboard his yacht. After Rogers dies Washington revealed that he had been quietly funding operations of 65 small country schools, and had given substantial sums of money to support Tuskegee Institute and Hampton Institute.

Jeanes and Rosenwald

Anna T. Jeanes (1822-1907) of Philadelphia in 1907 gave Washington $1 million to build schools in 1907.

Julius Rosenwald (1862-1932) was another self-made wealthy man with whom Dr. Washington found common ground. By 1908, Rosenwald, son of an immigrant Jewish clothier, had become owner and president of Sears, Roebuck and Company in Chicago. Rosenwald was a philanthropist who was deeply concerned about the poor state of African American education, especially in the Southern states.

In 1912 Rosenwald was asked to serve on the Board of Directors of Tuskegee Institute, a position he held for the remainder of his life. Rosenwald endowed Tuskegee so that Dr. Washington could spend less time traveling to seek funding and devote more time towards management of the school. Later in 1912, Rosenwald provided funds for a pilot program involving six new small schools in rural Alabama, which were designed, constructed and opened in 1913 and 1914 and overseen by Tuskegee; the model proved successful. Rosenwald established the The Rosenwald Fund. The school building program was one of its largest programs. Using state-of-the-art architectural plans initially drawn by professors at Tuskegee Institute, the Rosenwald Fund spent over four million dollars to help build 4,977 schools, 217 teachers' homes, and 163 shop buildings in 883 counties in 15 states, from Maryland to Texas.[11] The Rosenwald Fund used a system of matching grants, and black communities raised more than $4.7 million to aid the construction.[12] These schools became known as Rosenwald Schools. By 1932, the facilities could accommodate one third of all African American children in Southern U.S. schools.

Up from Slavery, invitation to the White House

In an effort to inspire the "commercial, agricultural, educational, and industrial advancement" of African Americans, Washington founded the National Negro Business League (NNBL) in 1900.[13]

Booker T. Washington's coffin being carried to grave site.

When Washington's autobiography, Up From Slavery, was published in 1901, it became a bestseller and had a major impact on the African American community, and its friends and allies. Washington in 1901 was the first African-American ever invited to the White House as the guest of President Theodore Roosevelt – white Southerners complained loudly.

Lifetime of overwork, death at age 59

Despite his travels and widespread work, Dr. Washington remained as principal of Tuskegee. Washington's health was deteriorating rapidly; he collapsed in New York City and was brought home to Tuskegee, where he died on November 14, 1915 at the age of 59. The cause of death was unclear, probably from nervous exhaustion and arteriosclerosis.[14] He was buried on the campus of Tuskegee University near the University Chapel.

His death was thought at the time to have been a result of congestive heart failure, aggravated by overwork. In March of 2006, with the permission of his descendants, examination of medical records indicated that he died of hypertension, with a blood pressure more than twice normal, confirming what had long been suspected.

At his death Tuskegee's endowment exceeded $1.5 million.

Honors and memorials

For his contributions to American society, Dr. Washington was granted an honorary master's degree from Harvard University in 1896 and an honorary doctorate from Dartmouth College in 1901.

In 1934, Robert Russa Moton, Washington's successor as president of Tuskegee University, arranged an air tour for two African Americans aviators, and afterward the plane was christened the Booker T. Washington.

In 1940 Washington became the first African American to be depicted on a United States postage stamp. The first coin to feature an African American was the Booker T. Washington Memorial Half Dollar that was minted by the U.S. from 1946 to 1951.

On April 5, 1956, the hundredth anniversary of Washington's birth, the house where he was born in Virginia was designated as the Booker T. Washington National Monument. A state park in Chattanooga, Tennessee was named in his honor, as was a bridge spanning the Hampton River adjacent to his alma mater, Hampton University.

In 1984, Hampton University dedicated a Booker T. Washington Memorial on campus near the historicEmancipation Oak, establishing, in the words of the University, "a relationship between one of America's great educators and social activists, and the symbol of Black achievement in education."[15]

Numerous high schools and middle schools across the United States have been named after Booker T. Washington.[16]

At the center of the campus at Tuskegee University, the Booker T. Washington Monument, called "Lifting the Veil," was dedicated in 1922. The inscription at its base reads:

"He lifted the veil of ignorance from his people and pointed the way to progress through education and industry."

Bivliography

Primary sources

Secondary sources

See also

References

Template:Wikisource author

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  1. Meier 1957
  2. Harlan (1983) p. 359
  3. Anderson (1998)
  4. Harlan (1972)
  5. Harlan (1972)
  6. Harlan (1972)
  7. Harlan (1972); Harlan (1983)
  8. Harlan (1972)
  9. Harlan (1971)
  10. Harlan (1972)
  11. See [1],
  12. See [2]
  13. See [3]
  14. The question of syphillis is discussed in Harlan 2:451-55
  15. See [4]
  16. see [5] and [6].

External links