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==Athens==
==Athens==


Athens as a democracy held conflicting and sometimes bizarre contradictions that are easily misinterpreted by the modern conception of what a democratic state should possess. In the constitutional democratic tradition, Athens differed on several counts; such as a lack of legal protections of liberties and rights – the citizen body could vote to take away your rights one day and vote to give them back the next. This naturally caused political instability that led to criticism of the model both from its contemporaries<ref>See [[Plato]]</ref> and revisionists in the present.  
For the evolution of democracy in Athens, see the [[Athens]] article.
 
[[Athens]] as a democracy held conflicting and sometimes bizarre contradictions that are easily misinterpreted by the modern conception of what a democratic state should possess. In the constitutional democratic tradition, Athens differed on several counts; such as a lack of legal protections of liberties and rights – the citizen body could vote to take away your rights one day and vote to give them back the next. This naturally caused political instability that led to criticism of the model both from its contemporaries<ref>See [[Plato]]</ref> and revisionists in the present.  


Opinions differ on the exact origins of Athenian democracy. Some attribute the reforms of [[Solon]] in 594 BC as laying the fundamental groundwork’s of the democratic evolution. Others point to the legendary [[King Thesus]] and his aspirations for Athens. Further, some believe the reforms of [[Cleisthenes]] (508-502 BC) played the major role.
Opinions differ on the exact origins of Athenian democracy. Some attribute the reforms of [[Solon]] in 594 BC as laying the fundamental groundwork’s of the democratic evolution. Others point to the legendary [[King Thesus]] and his aspirations for Athens. Further, some believe the reforms of [[Cleisthenes]] (508-502 BC) played the major role.
===Solon’s Reforms===
See [[Solon]]
Athens began its history in the archaic period under the control of a king; slowly that power was usurped by [[The Areopagus]], the group of Athenian aristocracy who came to rule the city as oligarchs. This rule by the wealthy however became unstable. The surrounding countryside of Athens produced rich cash crops of olive oil and wine that were farmed predominantly by the wealthy due to the high start up costs of these products. The poorer farmers produced wheat that was badly managed by the average Athenian farmer. Production of wheat plummeted due to malpractice (such as a lack of crop rotation, not leaving fields fallow etc.) at the same time as exports of Wine and Olive Oil and imports of wheat increased. The production of wheat decreased, and so did its price. Pretty soon, the average farmer was losing out and falling into debt with the wealthiest members of Athenian society. To pay for the debt, farmers sold their children, wives, and even themselves into limited slavery both at home and abroad.
Recognising the danger of the situation, in 594 BC, the Areopagus and the people of Athens agreed to hand over all political power to an individual, Solon. His primary aims were the restoration of stability and to prevent the seizure of power by an individual. Some reforms guaranteed certain individual rights: they protected personal liberty of Athenians against enslavement because of debt, and went so far as to ban loans that had slavery attached as security, as well as freeing as many Athenians as he could from the slavery they sold themselves into; permitted anyone to seek redress on behalf of someone who had been wronged; provided for the right of appeal; and he broke the aristocratic monopoly of office holding.
Solon divided Athenian society into four classes based on wealth. The two wealthiest classes were allowed to serve on the Areopagus. The third class was allowed to serve on an elected council of four hundred people, which was organised according to the four tribes of Athens; each tribe was allowed to elect one hundred representatives from this third class. The fourth class (The poorest class) was allowed to participate in an assembly; this assembly voted on issues brought to it from the council of four hundred, and elected local magistrates. This class also participated in a new judicial court that gradually drew civil and military cases away from the Areopagus.
===Peisistratus and Tyranny===
See [[Peisistratus]].
Solon’s new state lasted very briefly. Although he radically reformed government, he didn’t solve the economic crisis which resulted in anarchy within a few years. Peisistratus, a nobleman, swept into power during this anarchy and restored order. Although he was a military leader who established his authority with a mercenary army, Peisistratus built up the city of Athens and reformed religious practises; he also devoted his government to cultural reform. He patroned poets and artists and encouraged the growth of intellectual life in the city. He also launched a full attack on the power of the nobility. He increased the power of the Assembly and the courts associated with the poorer classes, and used his power to ensure the Solonian government ran smoothly and that elections were held, albeit if they were fixed.
Upon his death, the tyranny fell to his son [[Hippias]]. Although Hippias began his rule in a fashion similar to his father, the assassination of his brother caused him to become more withdrawn and arbitrary. His enemies began plotting his overthrow. A wealthy family, [[The Alcmaeonids]], who had been exiled by Peisistratus, used [[Sparta|Spartan]] help and overthrew the tyranny. Under the Spartan king, [[Cleomenes I]], Athens was overrun by 510BC and Hippias ran to exile in Persia.
===Cleisthenes===
The Spartans entered into a truce with Athens and installed their own hand-picked Athenians to lead the government. The Spartans chose [[Isagoras]], whom they felt was loyal to Sparta; Isagoras was however a bitter rival of the Alcmaeonids. Isagoras set about restoring Solonian government but also set about ‘purifying’ Athenian citizenship. Under Solon and Peisistratus, a number of people had been enfranchised as citizens even though they were not Athenians or were doubtful Athenians. Isagoras began to throw people off the citizenship rolls in great numbers. [[Cleisthenes]], an Alcmaeonid noble, rallied popular support and threatened the power of Isagoras, who recalled the Spartans. The Spartans invaded a second time, and Cleisthenes was expelled, but soon a popular uprising swept Isagoras from power and installed Cleisthenes.
From 508 to 502 BC, Cleisthenes began a series of reforms that would produce Athenian democracy as now understood. He enfranchised as citizens all free men living in Athens and [[Attica]] (The greater Athens area). He established a council which would be the chief arm of government with all executive and administrative control. Every citizen over the age of thirty was eligible to sit on this council; each year the members of the council were to be chosen by lot (ie, randomly) the assembly, which included all citizens was allowed to veto any council proposal and was the only branch of government entitled to declare war. In 487BC the Athenians added the final aspect of Athenian democracy as now remembered: [[Ostracism]]. The assembly could vote on expelling citizens from the state for a period of ten years. This ostracism would guarantee that individuals who were contemplating seizing power would be removed from the country before they became too powerful. On the other hand, it rid Athens of talented political and military leaders who happened to be unpopular.
By 502BC, Athens had established its cultural and political structure. Athens was essentially a democracy; had become a major trading and commercial centre; a large part of the economy was focused on lucrative cash crops; it had become a centre of art and literature; the city had become architecturally rich because of the public works programmes of Peisistratus; and Athenian religious festivals were largely in place. Over the next one hundred years Athens became an Empire, its democracy flourished and it maintained the finest navy in Greece. It was over-run by the Spartans in the Peloponnesian War and its democracy was rescinded in the short term. When defeated by the [[Macedonians]], its democracy was repressed. Although later revived, the extent to which any real democracy occurred again is open for debate.
''In Progress''


==Constitutional Democracy==
==Constitutional Democracy==

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Democracy is the rule of the majority, usually found within the boundaries of a Nation State. There are many different forms of democracy, such as our modern conception of it (Representative Democracy/Liberal Democracy) to the Ancient Greek form, where major issues where voted on directly by the citizens of Athens.

Etymology

Democracy as a word derives from the Greek demokratia which literally means 'rule by the people'. It is formed by Demos; 'the people' and Kratos - 'rule' or 'power'.

Athens

For the evolution of democracy in Athens, see the Athens article.

Athens as a democracy held conflicting and sometimes bizarre contradictions that are easily misinterpreted by the modern conception of what a democratic state should possess. In the constitutional democratic tradition, Athens differed on several counts; such as a lack of legal protections of liberties and rights – the citizen body could vote to take away your rights one day and vote to give them back the next. This naturally caused political instability that led to criticism of the model both from its contemporaries[1] and revisionists in the present.

Opinions differ on the exact origins of Athenian democracy. Some attribute the reforms of Solon in 594 BC as laying the fundamental groundwork’s of the democratic evolution. Others point to the legendary King Thesus and his aspirations for Athens. Further, some believe the reforms of Cleisthenes (508-502 BC) played the major role.

Constitutional Democracy

In the modern world, constitutional democracy is the natural opposite of Autocracy. The minimal definition in institutional terms of a constitutional democracy is that it should provide for a regularized system of periodic elections with a free choice of candidates, the opportunity to organize competing Political Parties, adult suffrage, decisions by majority vote with minority rights protection, an independent judiciary, constitutional safeguard of basic civil liberties and so called Natural Rights, and the opportunity to change governmental procedures by popular mandate.

Two features of constitutional democracy require emphasis in contrasting it with totalitarianism: A Constitution[2] and the political party. In most modern constitutional democracies there is a constitutional document providing for fixed limitations on the exercise of power. These provisions usually include three major elements: an assignment of different state functions and organisations to different state offices or organs, and the establishment of arrangements for their co-operation; a list of individual rights or liberties that are protected from the exercise of State power; and a statement by the methods of which the constitution may be amended.[3]

With these provisions, a concentration of political power with one person or party is limited, hence the Lockean notion of Limited Power. Certain areas of political and social life become immune to government intervention, without a constitutional amendment, and peaceful change in the political order is made possible.

The political party is the other chief instrument of constitutional democracy, as it is the agency in which the electorate is involved in the exchange and transfer of power. The political parties of constitutional democracy tend to be decentralised[4], concerned with the integration of diverse talents and interests, and open to public participation. There is usually some competition from two or more parties; some nations have two party systems, where the electorate is split down along racial, ethnic and economic coalitions readily identifiable with their respective political party[5], others have broader systems, where smaller parties take in sizeable portions of the vote, ensuring coalition governments need to be formed in order to create a functionable government.[6] The political party in a constitutional democracy serves the function of representing a mass electorate in the exercise of power and also a mechanism that allows the peaceful replacement of one set of power holders with another.

Bibliography

Sinclair, R. K., Democracy and participation in Athens (Cambridge, 1998)

Notes

  1. ↑ See Plato
  2. ↑ Britain, for example doesn’t have a written down constitution protecting liberties and rights like other democracies yet is in every sense of the term, a ‘democracy’
  3. ↑ Methods vary from nation to nation, with a direct vote from the people sufficient in some cases (e.g, [[Ireland) or an overwhelming majority of electoral support in other cases (Such as the U.S. Constitution requiring three quarters of the States to pass a constitutional amendment)
  4. ↑ The exception being regional interest parties, or fringe political movements such as fascism or communism
  5. ↑ Such as in the United States, to a variable extent
  6. ↑ Much of Europe adopts the Proportional Representation system, that tends to favour smaller parties.
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