John Quincy Adams

John Quincy Adams, (1767-1848) sixth president of the United States (1925-1829), was best known as a diplomat who shaped American's foreign policy.

Early career

Adams was born at Braintree, now Quincy, Massachusetts, on July 11, 1767. He was the son of John Adams, the second president of the United States, and Abigail Quincy Smith Adams. Much of his early life was spent with his father on diplomatic missions, and he obtained his formal schooling piecemeal in France, Amsterdam, Leiden, and The Hague. Extremely precocious, at the age of 14 Adams became secretary to Francis Dana, the American minister to Russia, and in 1783 acted as secretary to his father during the peace negotiations with Great Britain. When his father was appointed minister to the Court of St James (Great Britain) in 1785, Adams returned to Massachusetts and entered Harvard College, where he was graduated in 1787. Thereafter he studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1790, and began practicing in Boston, which bored him.

Early Public Life

At age 24, Adams published anonymously Publicola, a reply to [[Thomas Paines "Rights of Man", which was so brilliantly written that it was attributed to his father. By other writings in defense of the Federalist Party's foreign policy, young Adams attracted the attention of President George Washington, who appointed him minister to the Netherlands in 1794. During the next seven years he was stationed at The Hague and at Berlin, but retired from the diplomatic service on the defeat of his father for the presidency by Thomas Jefferson in 1800.

Adams married Louisa Catherine Johnson, daughter of the American consul at London, in 1797. Returning to the United States, Adams was defeated in 1802 for the U.S. House of Representatives, but in 1803 was elected to the U.S. Senate by the Massachusetts legislature. Like other Federalists he attacked the Louisiana Purchase as "accomplished by a flagrant violation of the Constitution." Adams soon showed that spirit of political independence which was to characterize his entire career. Crossing party lines, he supported the impeachment of Federalist judges, and, most important, Jefferson's Embargo Act, which was strenuously opposed by his constituents. The embargo vote alienated him completely from the Federalists, who denounced him publicly and secured his defeat in the senatorial election in June 1808. Disowned by the Federalists and not accepted by the [[Democratic-Republican Party|Republicans], Adams accepted a professorship of rhetoric and oratory at Harvard. In 1809, however, President James Madison appointed him minister to Russia. Declining an appointment to the U.S. Supreme Court in 1811, he served as a peace commissioner after the War of 1812, then as minister to the Court of St, James (Britain). He was generally considered to be one of the ablest American diplomats of his period.

Secretary of State

Adams appointment as secretary of state under President James Monroe in 1817 was eloquent testimony to his splendid diplomatic service as well as to his knowledge of European affairs. Few secretaries of state have been more successful. During his eight years in that office Adams succeeded in settling most of the major disputes with Britain, including questions arising over the Great Lakes, Oregon, and fishing rights. He played an important part in the purchase of Florida from Spain, restraining Monroe when the President's actions in regard to Latin America might have jeopardized the purchase. He also contributed greatly to the formulation of the Monroe Doctrine by arguing against common action with Britain and by suggesting that part of the famous Monroe Doctrine which points out the differences between the political systems of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. During the Monroe administration he was a constant advocate of nationalistic measures, Although he did not approve of slavery he supported the Missouri Compromise in 1820.

President

In the presidential election of 1824, the old caucus system collapsed and four Republicans competed on the basis of regional strength. As the only Northeastern candidate, Adams received 84 electoral votes to 99 for Tennessee's Andrew Jackson, 41 for Georgia's William H. Crawford. and 37 for Kentucky's Henry Clay. Since no candidate had a majority, the election was thrown into the House of Representatives, which chose among the top three. Clay was out, but by opposing Jackson, he secured Adams' election on the first ballot. Adams made Clay the Secretary of State, to the outrage of Jackson who said a corrupt bargain had nullified the will of the people.

Adams' singular intelligence, vast experience, unquestionable integrity, and devotion to his country should have made him a great chief executive. But like his father he lacked political sense and an ability to command public support, and his contentious spirit spelled defeat for him personally and for many of his policies. Opposition from the states' rights faction arose almost immediately to his proposals for a comprehensive program of internal improvements, the creation of a national university, and federal support for the arts and sciences.

Even more serious was the attack by the followers of Jackson, who accused him of being a partner to a "corrupt bargain" to obtain Clay's support in the election and then appoint him secretary of state. Refusing to play politics, Adams did little or nothing to build up a personal following committed to his re-election. He refused to discharge federal officeholders when they actively joined the opposition, and even considered appointing Jackson to his cabinet. Losing control of Congress in the elections of 1826, he still persisted in his independent policies and thus insured his own overwhelming defeat by Jackson two years later. He was particularly embittered by the unfounded accusations of fraud and extravagance made against him during the campaign by his opponents.

Jackson defeated Adams in a landslide in 1828, and created the the modern Democratic party and thus inaugurating the Second Party System.

Struggle Over Slavery

Adams returned briefly to Braintree, but after two years of retirement was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1831 by his old district and regularly re-elected every two years for the rest of his life. The "Old Man Eloquent," as he was called, won renewed respect throughout the North as an opponent of slavery. Although never an abolitionist, Adams fought the extension of slavery in the territories. Even more spectacular was his eight-year struggle against the Southern-inspired "gag resolutions," which sought to deny the presentation and the discussion of antislavery petitions in Congress. Repeatedly threatened by irate Southerners with disbarment from Congress, he courageously kept up the struggle and finally won the right of free petition in 1844. A staunch Whig, he redefined the nature of the slavery debate.

Adams died in the speaker's room on Feb. 23, 1848.

Legacy

One of his three sons, Charles Francis Adams became a distinguished American diplomat. Like his father, John Quincy Adams was possibly deficient in personal warmth, was contentious, and inclined to suspect the motives of his associates, but he was also possessed of his father's brilliant mind, enormous energy, and abiding devotion to his country. He kept one of the most famous diaries in American history, which was edited and partially published by his son, Charles Francis Adams, in 12 volumes, 1874-1877.

Bibliography

• Bemis, Samuel Flagg. John Quincy Adams and the foundations of American foreign policy, (1950) and John Quincy Adams and the Union (1956), classic two volume scholarly biography; Pulitzer Prize
• Dangerfield, George. The Awakening of American Nationalism: 1815 - 1828 (1954) excerpt and text search
• Hargreaves, Mary W. M. The Presidency of John Quincy Adams (1985), the standard scholarly survey excerpt and text search

Primary sources

• Adams, John Quincy. Memoirs, 12 vols., edited by Charles Francis Adams (1874-77)